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OF  THE     '^      , 


WK 


IRRIGATION 
FARMING 


A  HANDBOOK  FOR  THE  PROPER 
APPLICATION  OF  WATER  IN  THE 
PRODUCTION   OF  CROPS  ;    /    ;  ^• 


BY 

LUCIUS    M.  WILCOX 

Editor  of  the  ''Field  and  Farm  " 


Revised  and  Enlarged    Edition 


OP  THE 
ILLUSTI,ATED-.^^o. 


NEW   YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD   COMPANY 
1902 


// 


s(N? 


Copyright,  1902 
BY    ORANGB  JUDD    COMPANY 


GENERAL 


PREFACE. 


F"~^  OR  many  years  the  author  of  this  work  endeav- 
,  ored  to  obtain  specific  information  concerning 
^^.  the  application  of  water  for  the  producflion 
of  crops  on  the  edge  of  the  Great  American 
Desert,  but  was  unable  to  secure  any  practical  work 
bearing  on  the  subjecfl.  Realizing  that  there  were  a 
million  or  more  other  deserving  people  similarly  situ- 
ated who  desired  just  such  instrudlion,  the  writer 
assumed  the  prerogative  of  inditing  this  simply  com- 
piled volume  in  the  hopes  that  it  might  be  acceptably 
received.  From  the  time  of  its  first  appearance,  in 
1895,  the  author's  anticipation  has  been  more  than 
realized,  and  it  is  with  considerable  satisfac5lion  that 
this  revised  edition  of  the  work  is  offered. 

At  this  period  in  the  grand  enlightenment  of  the 
world  through  the  medium  of  the  printing-press  all 
thoughtful  readers  have  come  to  understand  the  im- 
portance of  irrigation  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term. 
Inasmuch  as  this  science  has  become  such  an  important 
factor  in  modern  agricultural  pursuits,  and  is  becom- 
ing more  or  less  essential  in  all  parts  of  our  vast 
domain,  particularly  in  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States,  the  author  has  considered  it  of  such  general 
interest  as  to  justify  the  publication  of  the  work  sub- 
mitted herewith.  The  necessity  of  revision  has  natu- 
rally arisen  with  the  flight  of  years,  for  progress  is  the 


101944 


VI  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

order  of  the  hour  in  all  lines  of  industrial  effort.  In 
irrigation  this  fac5l  is  accentuated  with  each  succeeding 
year,  and  to  appreciate  all  the  improvements  of  the 
times  we  must  not  hesitate  to  command  all  the  best 
thought  and  experience  of  the  men  who  have  been 
successful  in  leading  the  waters  captive  to  obey  their 
will  in  developing  the  fullest  fruition  of  the  earth. 

In  treating  upon  so  wide  and  diversified  a  subjedl 
as  universal  irrigation,  I  have  endeavored  throughout 
to  make  all  points  touched  upon  as  explicit  and  com- 
prehensive as  possible,  avoiding  all  useless  verbiage, 
and  handling  the  subjedl  as  understandingly  as  has 
come  within  the  power  of  simple  didlion.  While  the 
text  of  the  work  is  based  largely  upon  personal  ex- 
perience, some  of  the  dedudlions  contained  in  these 
pages,  especially  regarding  those  in  which  the  tech- 
nical features  are  most  prominent,  are  adapted  from 
the  observations  of  others  proficient  in  their  respective 
lines.  I  have  relied  somewhat  upon  the  valuable 
knowledge  of  hydraulic  engineers  and  scientists,  and 
have  utilized  the  best  authorities  attainable  whenever 
technical  matters  had  to  be  considered. 

Upon  careful  perusal  it  will  be  seen  that  the  strong 
position  taken  by  the  writer  all  through  the  work  is 
the  importance  of  consistent  and  scientific  cultivation 
in  connec5lion  with  all  irrigation  operations.  The  one 
is  quite  as  essential  as  the  other,  and  the  two  combined 
are  indispensable  in  attaining  the  most  perfedl  results. 
*  *  Till  and  keep  tilling  ' '  is  the  most  potent  axiom  of 
the  twentieth  century.  I  have  deprecated  shiftless 
methods  as  derogatory  to  the  best  success,  and  have 
condemned  the  practice  as  inexcusable  as  the  wanton 


PREFACE.  Vll 

waste  of  water  itself.  In  all  conclusions  I  have  used 
the  judgment  afforded  by  twenty-five  years'  a(5lual 
experience  in  the  field,  and  if  these  lessons  prove  of 
any  benefit  to  the  agricultural  masses  far  and  wide  I 
shall  feel  that  this  work  has  not  been  in  vain,  and  that 
the  labor  has  been  worthy  of  its  hire. 

lyUCius  M.  WiivCOx. 
Denver,  Colorado,  1902. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I.  PAQR 

The  History  of  Irrigation i 

CHAPTER   II. 
The  Advantages  of  Irrigation 13 

CHAPTER    III. 
The  Relation  of  Soils  to  Irrigation 22 

CHAPTER   IV. 
The  Treatment  of  Alkali 36 

CHAPTER   V. 
Water-supply 47 

CHAPTER    VI. 
Canal  Construction 57 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Reservoirs  and  Ponds 84 

CHAPTER   VIII. 
Pipes  for  Irrigation  Purposes 109 

CHAPTER    IX. 
Flumes  and  Their  Structure 123 

CHAPTER   X. 
Duty  and  Measurement  of  Water       .....     140 

CHAPTER   XI. 
Methods  of  Applying  Water 166 

CHAPTER   XII. 

Irrigation  of  Field  Crops 206 

ix 


X  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

PAGE. 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
Irrigation  of  the  Garden 250 

CHAPTER   XIV. 
Irrigation  for  the  Orchard^ 277 

CHAPTER  XV. 
The  Vineyard  and  Small  Fruits 303 

CHAPTER   XVI. 
All  About  Alfalfa 324 

CHAPTER   XVII. 
Windmills  and  Pumps  . 352 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Devices,  Appliances  and  Contrivances       .         .         .         .394 

CHAPTER   XIX. 
Subirrigation  and  Subsoiling 4^9 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Seepage  and  Drainage 43^ 

CHAPTER   XXI. 
Electricity  in  Irrigation 448 

CHAPTER   XXII. 
Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates 455 

CHAPTER   XXIII. 
Winter  Irrigation 4^3 

CHAPTER   XXIV. 
The  Common  Law  of  Irrigation 473 

Glossary  of  Irrigation  Terms        ....    485 

Index 49i 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGB. 

Portrait  of  Author Frontispiece, 

"  A  river  went  out  of  Eden  to  water  the  garden  "     .        .  xvi 

Irrigation  5,000  Years  Ago 3 

Irrigation  Scene  on  the  River  Nile 5 

Grecian  Tympanum  Wheel 8 

Dividing  Line  Between  Desert  and  Orchard      ...  17 

Capillary  Tubes  of  Soil 31 

The  Newsom  System  of  Water-supply       ....  55 

The  Jackson  Level 59 

Target 60 

Drop  and  Reduction  Box 67 

Curve  of  a  Large  Canal 69 

Canal  on  a  Hillside 7^ 

Headgate  of  a  Canal 73 

Top  Sectional  View  of  Land's  Sand  Gate           ...  74 

Side  View  of  Sand  Gate 74 

Front  View  of  Sand  Gate .74 

Automatic  Waste  Gate 76 

Iron  Outlet  Gate 78 

Bear  Valley  Dam 91 

Sweetwater  Dam           .         .        '. 93 

Diverting  Dam 97 

Cross-section  of  Hydraulic  Reservoir        ....  104 

Riveted  Iron  Pipe 112 

Spiral  Iron  Pipe .  113 

XI 


Xll 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


Vitrified  Pipe 

Asbestine  Pipe  Machine 

Side  View  of  Stave  Pipe 

Cross-section  of  Stave  Pipe 

Stave  Pipe-line  in  Position 

Box  Flume  with  Waste  Gate 

Flume  Across  a  Valley 

Truss  Flume  Across  a  Stream 

Method  of  Elevating  a  High-flume  Trestle 

Bench  Flume  for  a  Large  Canal 

The  Great  Flume  Over  the  Pecos  River 

Side  View  of  Small  Iron  Flume 

End  View  of  Small  Iron  Flume 

Cross-section  of  Large  Iron  Flume     . 

Flume  on  a  Rocky  Ledge     . 

Flume  with  Overhanging  Support 

Divisor  .         .         .         . 

Foote's  Measuring  Flume 

Rectangular  Weir        .... 

The  Current  Meter       .... 

Water  Register 

The  Stokes  Measuring  Gate 

Bird's-eye  View  of  a  Model  Irrigated  Farm 

Lateral  Bulkhead    *    .         '. 

Improved  Steel  Land  Grader 

A  Four-horse  Grading  Machine 

Diagonal  Plow  Furrows  Across  a  Field 

Distributing  Gates  of  Irrigation  Canal 

Parallel  Furrows  for  a  Grown  Orchard 

Double  Furrow  Orchard  System 

Section  of  Vitrified  Head  Ditch 

The  Basin  System        .... 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Contour  of  Border  System 

Irrigating  with  a  Hose 

Iirigating  a  Hillside 

A  Plan  for  Watering  Rough  Land 

Irrigating  a  Grain  Field 

Irrigating  a  Crop  of  Potatoes     . 

Diagram  of  Garden 

Irrigated  Garden  .         .         . 

Section  of  Tiled  Celery  Bed 

Diagram  of  an  Orchard 

Nursery  Irrigation 

Trellised  Vineyard 

Alfalfa  Plant  in  Full  Bloom 

Flooding  a  Field  of  Alfalfa 

Stacking  Alfalfa  with  a  Ricker 

Ventilator  for  Alfalfa  Stack 

Dodder  Seed,  Flower,  and  Plant 

Trocar  Used  for  Bloat 

An  Ideal  Windmill  and  Reservoir  Plant 

A  Windmill  Plant  in  Operation 

Wind  Rustler 

Battle-ax  Windmill 

The  Merry-Go-Round 

Gause  Pump  and  Points 

Irrigation  Pump  Cylinder 

Berlin  Oscillating  Pump 

The  Low-lift  Vacuum  Pump 

High-lift  Vacuum  Pump 

Centrifugal  Pump 

Hydraulic  Ram  in  Parts 

Hydraulic  Engine  in  Operation 

Harvey  Water-motor   . 


XIV 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


The  Hurdy-Gurdy 

382 

Air  Compressor 

386 

The  Pneumatic  System 

.     387 

Inverted  Sewer  System 

395 

Artesian  Well 

398 

Artesian  Drilling  Outfit 

399 

Bucket  Elevator 

403 

The  Apron  Dam 

405 

Huntley  Dam        . 

407 

The  Witcher  Canvas  Dam  . 

408 

The  Van  Horn  Tap  Gate     . 

409 

A  Home-made  Spirit-level 

410 

A  Ditch  Cleaner 

411 

A  Garden  Hitcher 

411 

Water-gate,  Standing  Position 

412 

Water-gate.  While  Water  is  High 

412 

Cistern  and  Liquid  Manure  Spreadei 

414 

The  Corrugated  Roller  in  Operation 

417 

Diagram  of  Subirrigated  Field    . 

423 

Father  Cole's  System  . 

429 

Greenhouse  Irrigation 

. 

431 

Subsoil  Plow 

435 

Incorrect  Drainage 

443 

Correct  Drainage. 

444 

A  Steam  Ditcher  at  Work 

446 

••a   river  went   out   of   EDEN   TO   WATER  THE   GARDEN." 

—Book  of  Gaiesis. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  HISTORY  OF  IRRIGATION. 


^TT^  HE  magic  science  of  irrigation  is  as  old  as  civili- 
*    ,      zation  itself — in  fa(5l,  it  was  in  vogue  during 

Hiai  the  semi-barbaric  days  of  prehistoric  times. 
The  use  of  irrigation  for  the  production  of 
crops  probably  antedates  Noah's  deluge  by  several 
thousand  years.  The  earliest  writer  of  agricultural 
lyrics  was  Hesiod,  a  Greek  epic  author  who  lived 
a  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  He  often 
refers  to  irrigation  as  prac5liced  for  ages  prior  to 
his  time  by  the  Chinese  people,  of  whom  he  seems  to 
have  had  considerable  knowledge.  In  Plato's  Timseus 
is  an  account  of  the  sunken  island  of  Atlantis.  This 
account  Plato  obtained  from  his  ancestor  Solon,  thd 
lawgiver,  who  had  visited  Egypt,  and  in  the  city  of 
Sais  obtained  the  information  from  an  Egyptian  priest. 
Solon  lived  about  2,500  years  ago,  and,  according  to 
the  story  told  him  by  the  priest,  there  existed  about 
10,000  years  before  his  time  a  large  island  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean  opposite  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  other- 
wise the  Strait'  of  Gibraltar,  which  was  divided  into 
ten  kingdoms  and  ruled  by  the  descendants  of  Posei- 
don. The  description  of  the  island  i3  very  minute, 
and  among  other  things  also  is  described  a  very  ex- 
tensive and  elaborate  system  of  irrigating  canals,  con- 
structed in  such  manner  as  to  utilize  every  natural 
stream  and  completely  surround  the  island.     While 


2  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

the  history  of  Atlantis  is  by  many  regarded  as  a  myth, 
there  are  too  many  ladls  adlually  in  existence  to  war- 
rant any  such  conclusion.  According  to  this  record, 
irrigation  was  in  practical  use  fully  12,500.  years  ago. 
The  English  and  French  hydrographic  engineers  of 
the  present  age  have  found  by  the  most  careful  sound- 
ings of  the  Atlantic  ocean  that  the  sunken  continent 
of  Atlantis  has  a  physical  existence,  and  that  it  also 
has  the  remains  of  great  canals  still  defined  upon  its 
submerged  surface. 

Twenty-seven  centuries  before  the  Star  of  Bethlehem 
shone  so  brightly  by  night  a  clever  Egyptian  ruler 
named  Menes  turned  the  course  of  the  Nile  so  as  to 
carry  the  turbid  waters  well  out  upon  the  higher 
ground,  upon  the  very  site  of  the  present  operations  of 
the  English  engineer  Wilcocks.  Menes  invented  the 
nilometer,  still  in  use  to-day  for  gauging  streams.  The 
first  artificial  lake  of  which  there  is  any  reliable  record 
is  Lake  Moeris.  The  historians  Herodotus,  Diodorus, 
and  Pliny  have  described  it,  on  the  testimony  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  as  one  of  the  noblest  works 
of  the  time  from  its  enormous  dimensions  and  its 
capacity  for  irrigation  for  the  benefit  of  mankind. 
According  to  them,  it  was  about  3,600  stadia,  or  413 
miles  in  circumference  and  300  feet  deep.  Modern 
travelers  have  considerably  reduced  the  circumference 
and  depth  of  this  lake,  making  it  measure  somewhat 
less  than  fifty  miles  in  circumference,  but  even  with 
this  curtailment  it  must  have  been  a  magnificent 
engineering  work,  worthy  of  the  admiration  of  all  the 
ages.  It  was  construd;ed,  some  historians  say,  by 
King  Moeris ;    others,   by   King  Amenemhet  in  the 


THE   HISTORY   OF   IRRIGATION. 


1 2th  dynasty,  2084  B.C.  In  the  20th  dynasty  Seti 
was  the  ruhng  monarch,  and  is  believed  to  have  been 
the  first  man  who  acquired  the  knowledge  of  civil 
engineering  and  applied  his  learning  particularly  to 
hydraulics,  for  he  introduced  irrigation  in  the  valley 
of  the  Nile  by  means  of  systemic  engineering.  He 
built  a  great  reservoir  in  a  natural  catchment  basin 
and  construdled  canals  in  one  vast  system.  Seti  was 
no  doubt  the  first 
person  to  sink  an 
artesian  well,  for 
the  Greek  histori- 
ans speak  of  this 
as  ' '  the  well  from 
which  water  flowed 
over  the  top."  He 
used  the  well  in 
supplying  water  to 
the  great  temple  of 
Karnak.  Sesostris, 
one  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious kings  of  antiquity,  who  reigned  in  Egypt  1491 
B.C.,  had  a  great  number  of  canals  cut  for  the  purpose 
of  trade  and  irrigation,  and  is  said  to  have  designed 
the  first  canal  which  established  communication  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  and  Red  seas.  The  oldest 
monument  at  Thebes  has  a  representation  of  a  naked 
fellah  under  a  dom  palm  tree  drawing  water  from  the 
Nile  wnth  a  well-sweep  or  shadoof,  a  reprodudlion  of 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  i,  and  the  fellah  of  to-day 
does  it  the  same  way,  except  that  two  or  more  usually 
work  together  on  a  large  turn  beam. 


FIG.    I — IRRIGATION    5,000   YEARS   AGO. 


4  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

By  the  time  that  Moses,  the  great  leader  and  law- 
giver, appeared  to  lead  the  enslaved  children  out  of 
Egyptian  slavery,  irrigation  had  made  great  progress 
in  a  general  way,  for  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  we 
are  told  something  of  their  agricultural  methods  in 
these  words  :  "  For  the  land,  whither  thou  goest  in  to 
possess  it,  is  not  as  the  land  of  Egypt,  from  whence  ye 
came  out,  where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed,  and  wateredst 
it  with  thy  foot,  as  a  garden  of  herbs.  But  the  land, 
whither  ye  go  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of  hills  and  val- 
leys, and  drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven. ' '  There 
are  in  Egypt  sedlions  of  country  that  have  been  in  con- 
stant use  for  over  four  thousand  years,  and  still  the  soil 
shows  no  sign  of  wearing  out,  for  such  is  the  nature  of 
the  water  of  the  Nile  that  the  annual  deposit  of  sedi- 
ment more  than  recompenses  the  drainage  by  the  im- 
mense crops.  An  illustration  of  such  a  farm  will  be 
seen  in  Fig.  2.  The  plats  are  laid  off  in  squares 
divided  by  the  irrigation  furrows. 

China  is  equally  celebrated  with  Egypt  for  the 
great  antiquity  of  its  numerous  canals.  The  Great  or 
Imperial  Canal  is  one  of  the  most  stupendous  works  of 
ancient  or  modern  times.  It  is  650  miles  long,  and  con- 
ne<5ls  the  Hoang-Ho  and  Yang-tse-Kiang  rivers.  It  is 
available  both  for  navigation  and  irrigation,  and  to- 
gether with  its  numerous  branches  irrigates  an  im- 
mense area  of  country,  thus  affording  millions  the 
means  of  livelihood  and  support.  Immense  tanks, 
reservoirs,  and  irrigating  canals  appear  to  have  been  con- 
stru<5led  in  India  many  centuries  anterior  to  the  advent 
of  Christ,  and  some  of  them  are  probably  equally  as 
ancient  as  the  Egyptian  canals.     The  Assyrians  were 


6  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

equally  renowned  with  the  Egyptians  from  the  most 
remote  periods  of  history  for  their  skill  and  ingenuity 
in  the  construdlion  of  hydraulic  works.  Through  the 
foresight,  enterprise,  and  energy  of  their  rulers  they 
converted  the  sterile  country  in  the  valleys  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Tigris  into  fertility,  which  was  the  theme 
of  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  ancient  historians. 
The  country  below  Hit  on  the  Euphrates,  andSamarra 
on  the  Tigris,  was  at  one  time  intersedled  with  numer- 
ous canals,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  important  of 
which,  called  the  Nahr  Malikah,  conne(5ling  the  Eu- 
phrates with  the  Tigris,  is  attributed  by  tradition  to 
Nimrod,  King  of  Babel,  2204  B.C.,  while  other  histo- 
rians assert  that  Nebuchadnezzar  construdled  it. 

Among  the  ancient  works  at  Babylon,  with  its 
fabled  hanging  gardens,  was  a  lake  42  miles  in  circum- 
ference and  35  feet  deep,  to  store  the  flood- waters  of 
the  Euphrates  and  distribute  them  for  irrigation.  The 
Nahrawn  canal,  taken  from  the  Tigris  river,  was  over 
400  miles  long,  and  varied  in  width  from  250  to  400 
feet,  and  from  numerous  branches  on  both  sides  it  irri- 
gated a  very  extensive  area  of  country,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  was  also  available  for  navigation.  With 
the  destrudlion  of  Babylon  the  glory  of  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  Empire  departed,  the  canals  were  negle<5led, 
and  the  country  described  by  Herodotus  as  being  pro- 
Hfic  before  all  other  lands  in  its  produ<5lion  of  rye, 
wheat,  and  barley  has  become  so  dry  and  barren  that 
it  cannot  be  cultivated,  and  is  inhabited  only  by 
nomadic  bands  of  Bedouins  and  the  scurvy,  wandering 
Arabians. 

In  the  book  of  Ecclesiastes  we  read  of  the  hidden 


THK  HISTORY  OF   IRRIGATION.  7 

Springs  and  sealed  fountains  of  Solomon,  from  which 
the  water  was  piped  to  the  plains  below.  The  remains 
of  reservoirs  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hebron,  which  the 
Jews  are  supposed  to  have  constructed  in  the  days  of 
Solomon  for  the  supply  of  Jerusalem,  show  that  their 
designers  were  equally  alive  with  most  engineers  of 
the  present  age  to  the  great  importance  of  an  ample 
and  constant  supply  of  water.  The  Phoenicians,  in 
the  zenith  of  their  power,  were  celebrated  for  their 
canals,  both  for  the  supply  of  Carthage  with  drinking 
water  and  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  They  were 
a  very  diligent  people,  and  so  imbued  were  they  in 
the  cause  of  irrigation  that  they  made  aquedu(5ls 
through  mountains  of  solid  granite,  hewing  the  way 
with  hand  chisels.  Many  of  these  prehistoric  works 
still  remain. 

The  Greeks,  judging  from  the  ruins  of  large 
aquedudls  scattered  throughout  the  country,  appear 
from  a  very  remote  period  to  have  paid  the  greatest 
attention  to  hydraulic  science.  Herodotus  describes 
an  ancient  conduit  for  supplying  Samos,  which  had  a 
channel  three  feet  wide  and  which  pierced  a  hill  with 
a  tunnel  nearly  a  mile  long.  Another  masonry  aque- 
du<5l  near  Patara  crossed  a  ravine  200  feet  wide  and 
250  feet  deep.  Virgil,  that  most  charming  of  Roman 
poets,  in  referring  to  irrigation  in  his  First  Georgic, 
says : 

*'  What  may  I  say  of  that  industrious  swain 
Who,  like  a  soldier  following  spear  with  sword, 
The  grain  pursues  just  cast  into  its  place. 
And  rushes  on  it  the  adjoining  heap 
Of  soil  that  is  illy  rich,  then  leads  the  stream 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

And  following  streams  upon  the  planted  grain  ; 
And  when  the  burnt-out  field  with  dying  growths 
Is  hot,  behold,  he  brings  the  saving  wave  headlong, 
Down  through  its  slanting  path;  its  falling  calls 
From  rounding  rocks  a  murmur  hoarse,  and  cools 
With  scattering  rills  the  parched  and  thirsty  fields." 

The  Grecians  were  an  inventive  people  and  to  them 


FIG.    3 — GRECIAN   TYMPANUM   WHEEL. 


are  ascribed  great  improvements  in  the  way  of  mechan- 
ical contrivances  for  raising  water.  Principal  among 
these  is  the  tympanum  wheel,  afterward  adopted  by 
the  Egyptians,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

In  the  reign  of  Emperor  Nero,  Rome  was  supplied 
by  no  fewer  than  nine  large  conduits,  having  an  aggre- 
gate length  of  255  miles,  which  delivered  over  173,- 
000,000  gallons  of  water  daily.    Afterward  the  supply 


THE   HISTORY   OF   IRRIGATION.  9 

was  increased  to  312,500,000  gallons  daily.  Most  of 
the  Roman  works  were  construdled  for  the  supply  of 
cities  with  drinking  water,  and  such  were  built  in  all 
countries  under  Roman  control.  That  of  Claudia  was 
47  miles  long  and  100  feet  high,  so  as  to  furnish  the 
hills.  Martia's  was  41  miles,  of  which  37  were  on 
7,000  arches  70  feet  high.  These  vast  eredlions  would 
never  have  been  built  had  the  Romans  known  that 
water  always  rises  to  its  own  level. 

Julius  Caesar,  in  his  efforts  to  conquer  the  world, 
carried  the  irrigation  idea  into  Great  Britain,  and  his 
subservient  soldiery  constru(5led  many  miles  of  artifi- 
cial watercourses,  or,  rather,  superintended  the  work, 
which  was  done  manually  by  the  people  whom  they 
had  enslaved  by  conquest.  When  Constantine  was 
sent  to  the  Bosphorus  to  found  the  great  city  which 
bears  his  name  he  detailed  certain  numbers  of  his  army 
for  canal  work,  and  they  built  many  permanent  irri- 
gating works. 

The  Spaniards  are  the  best  irrigators  in  the  world  ; 
they  have  been  applying  water  artificially  for  over 
3,000  years,  and  have  thoroughly  familiarized  them- 
selves as  to  its  uses,  adaptability,  application,  etc. 
Modern  travelers  tell  us  they  have  the  best-construdled 
works  of  any  people,  and  many  of  these  works  were 
made  prior  to  the  Moorish  occupancy.  The  solid 
masonry,  the  handiwork  of  men  living  before  the 
advent  of  the  Christian  epoch,  is  still  extant  and  in 
acftual  use.  What  was  done  with  irrigating  science 
during  the  dark  ages  we  know  but  little. 

Coming  down  to  more  modern  times,  and  looking 
at  the  western  hemisphere  through  the  murky  vista  of 


lO  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  years,  we  find  that  irrigation  has  existed  as  an  aid 
to  agriculture  for  many  centuries  antedating  the 
advent  of  the  Caucasian.  Arizona  is  full  of  the 
remains  of  ancient  towns  and  irrigating  canals,  and  in 
Taos,  Santa  F6,  Valencia  and  Grant  counties,  New 
Mexico,  the  existing  ruins  of  similar  strucftures  point 
to  a  dense  population  existing  at  some  remote  period 
under  some  form  of  organized  government.  The  rem- 
nants of  this  nation  or  nations  are  found  in  the  Pueblos 
of  Acoma,  Cochita,  Isleta,  Jemez,  lyaguna,  Moqui, 
Nambe,  Picuris,  Zuni,  and  others  of  New  Mexico,  and 
the  Chihuahuas  and  Tequas  and  others  along  the  Rio 
Grande  in  Texas.  The  writer  has  stood  upon  the 
ruins  of  I^a  Gran  Quivera  and  traced  for  miles  with 
his  eye  the  grade  of  a  great  irrigating  ditch.  Ruins 
of  ancient  towns  have  also  been  found  along  the  Pecos 
river  in  Texas.  There  ^re  few  streams  in  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  where  traces  of  ancient  works  cannot 
be  found.  Earthquakes  and  wars  with  savage  neigh- 
bors brought  about  the  destrudlion  of  most  of  these 
works.  The  Spanish  marauders  under  Cabeza  de 
Vaca,  and  later  on  under  Coronado,  helped  to  bring 
about  further  decay.  In  Peru,  the  land  of  the  Incas, 
and  throughout  Mexico  and  Central  America,  the 
early  Spanish  explorers  found  such  magnificent  irri- 
gating works  that  their  astonishment  was  very  marked. 
The  elaborate  appliances  for  irrigation  were  negle(5led 
and  allowed  to  go  to  ruin.  The  now  existing  works 
do  not  compare  in  magnitude  to  the  ancient  works. 
Parts  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  were  at  some  remote 
period  densely  populated  and  then  abandoned.  Quite 
extensive  systems  of  irrigating  canals  of  prehistoric 


^Hl^  HISI'ORY  O^  IRRIGATION.  II 

origin  have  been  found  on  the  Colorado  river,  and 
parts  of  them  have  been  adapted  to  the  modern  canals. 
At  the  Casa  Grande  and  in  the  Salt  River  valley  of 
Southern  Arizona  these  canals  may  still  be  seen. 
Thirty-five  years  ago  an  engineer  at  field  work  near 
Riverside,  California,  was  running  the  level  for  a 
proposed  ditch.  He  could  not  establish  the  grade 
satisfactorily,  so  he  went  again  to  the  stream  and 
reconnoitered  for  a  new  start.  He  was  surprised  to 
find  an  old  acequia — so  old,  in  fadl,  that  its  banks  were 
scarcely  discernible — and  by  carefully  following  its 
course  he  was  still  more  astonished  to  discover  that  it 
had  brought  him  to  his  original  objective  point,  and 
on  these  lines  the  new  canal  was  laid.  The  grade  was 
all  that  could  have  been  wished  for. 

Among  the  old  irrigation  works  are  those  in  the 
vicinity  of  San  Antonio,  Te:^as,  begun  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  padres  about  17 15.  With  the 
eredtion  of  the  Spanish  missions  began  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil  in  Southwestern  Texas.  According  to  local 
tradition  the  worthy  padres  were  expert  in  rounding 
up  the  unfortunate  natives  and  getting  an  unlimited 
amount  of  work  out  of  them  in  the  construction  of 
mission  buildings  and  irrigating  ditches.  The  pay  for 
services  rendered  was  usually  bestowed  in  the  form  of 
religious  instruc5lion,  administered  willy-nilly,  and 
occasionally  augmented  by  an  extra  inquisition,  if  the 
forced  piety  and  humility  did  not  agree  well  with  the 
unwilling  convert. 

The  pioneer  Mormons  who  settled  in  the  fertile 
Salt  Lake  valley  in  1847  saw  the  necessity  of  irriga- 
tion, and  to  their  untiring  efforts  and  attendant  success 


12  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

is  due  much  of  the  credit  for  the  impetus  given  our 
more  modern  methods  of  artificial  crop-watering.  It 
took  them  two  years  to  get  their  first  canal  into  work- 
ing order,  and  the  work  was  done  under  the  pressure 
of  uncertainty  and  with  many  hardships  and  priva- 
tions. In  1870  the  Greeley  Union  Colony  was  estab- 
lished in  Northern  Colorado  on  a  barren  plain,  and  an 
experimental  system  of  ditching  was  begun  in  imita- 
tion of  the  irrigation  fields  existing  in  Utah.  It  was 
about  this  time  that  the  California  Arcadians  took  up 
the  great  art  of  supplying  plant  food  with  * '  the  waters 
led  captive,"  and  at  once  irrigation  sprang  into  new 
life  and  came  seemingly  in  the  nick  of  time  to  redeem 
America's  arid  wastes  "and  make  the  desert  to  blos- 
som as  the  rose. ' ' 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE   ADVANTAGES  OF    IRRIGATION. 


SOME  one  has  spoken  of  irrigation  as  the  ' '  wed- 
,  ding  of  the  sunshine  and  the  rain. ' '  A  great 
^^^  many  people  hearing  the  word  irrigation 
experience  the  same  sensations  that  they  do 
when  Madagascar  or  Wiju  is  spoken  of.  They  have 
a  feeHng  that  it  is  something  a  great  distance  off — hard 
to  reach — intangible.  They  read  about  it  as  they  like 
to  read  * '  Arabian  Nights  "  or  * '  Hans  Andersen's  Fairy 
Stories, ' '  and  it  leaves  on  their  minds  about  the  same 
impressions  of  wonder,  magnificence,  and  untruth  as  do 
the  stories  named.  To  them  the  very  word  "irriga- 
tion" puts  their  reasonings  to  flight,  and  they  imagine 
that  the  art  of  applying  water  to  cultivated  lands  is 
some  complicated  and  wonderfully  intricate  process 
not  easily  understood  or  attained  by  mortal  man.  The 
fa<5l  of  the  matter  is,  as  the  author  proposes  to  show 
in  the  succeeding  chapters,  that  irrigation  is  as  simple 
as  child's  play,  and  may  be  accomplished  by  the  most 
commonplace  day  laborer  in  the  fields.  In  enumera- 
ting a  few  of  the  advantages  attendant  upon  irrigating 
methods,  we  will  cite  the  fa(5fs  that  irrigation  reclaims 
arid  wastes  ;  makes  a  prosperous  country  ;  causes  the 
desert  to  blossom  and  overcomes  the  destrucftive  effe(5ls 
of  the  parching  southern  winds  ;  insures  full  crops 
every  season  ;  improves  land  at  each  submergence,  and 

13 


14  IRRIGATION   FARMING, 

consequently  does  not  wear  out  the  soil;  produces  sup- 
port of  dense  population  ;  multiplies  the  produ(5live 
capacity  of  soils  ;  destroys  inse<5ts  and  worms  and  pro- 
duces perfedl  fruit ;  creates  wealth  from  water,  sun- 
shine, and  soil ;  makes  the  farmer  independent  of  the 
rainfall ;  will  redeem  100,000,000  acres  of  desert  lands 
in  the  United  States  alone  ;  yields  large  returns  to 
investors ;  adds  constantly  to  the  security  of  invest- 
ments ;  will  yield  support  for  50,000,000  of  increased 
population  in  America ;  makes  the  produ(5lion  of 
choicest  fruits  possible,  and  prolongs  the  harvest  period 
of  various  crops  if  so  desired  ;  affords  a  sure  founda- 
tion for  the  creation  of  wealth  ;  lessens  the  danger  of 
floods  ;  utilizes  the  virgin  soil  of  the  mountain  regions  ; 
is  now  employing  more  than  $1,000, 000, 000  of  capital ; 
insures  two  or  more  crops  annually  in  the  lower  lati- 
tudes ;  will  increase  threefold  the  value  of  lands  hav- 
ing rainfall ;  keeps  off  the  early  approach  of  Jack 
Frost ;  improves  the  quality  and  increases  fully  one- 
eighth  and  oftentimes  one-fourth  the  size  of  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  grains  ;  makes  farming  profitable  in 
waste  places  and  forever  forestalls  the  inroads  caused 
by  the  ghost  of  drouth  ;  and  will  finally  solve  the  great 
labor  question  and  fortify  against  the  alarming  increase 
of  city  populations. 

The  farmer  who  has  a  soil  containing  an  abundance 
of  all  the  needed  elements,  in  a  proper  state  of  fine- 
ness, cannot  but  deem  himself  happy  if  he  have  always 
ready  at  hand  the  means  of  readily  and  cheaply  sup- 
plying all  the  water  needed  by  his  soil  and  growing 
crops,  just  when  and  in  just  such  quantities  as  are 
needed.     Happier  still  may  he  be  if,  besides  fearing  no 


THE   ADVANTAGES   OF   IRRIGATION.  1 5 

drouth,  he  has  no  rainfall  to  interrupt  his  labors  or  to 
injure  his  growing  or  harvested  crops.  And  happier 
still  may  he  be  when  he  realizes  that  he  need  have  no 
' '  off  years, ' '  and  he  knows  that  the  waters  he  admits 
to  his  fields  at  will  are  freighted  with  rich  fertilizing 
elements  usually  far  more  valuable  to  the  growing 
crop  than  any  that  he  can  purchase  and  apply  at  a 
costly  rate — a  cost  that  makes  serious  inroads  upon  the 
profits  of  the  majority  of  farmers  cultivating  the  worn- 
out  or  deteriorated  soils  in  the  older  states  year  by 
year.  Fertilizers  are  already  needed  for  the  most 
profitable  culture  on  many  farms  in  Iowa,  Minnesota, 
Eastern  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  in  Missouri,  and  in  all 
states  east  of  those  named. 

In  proof  of  this  assertion  the  writer  can  best  be 
qualified  in  his  statement  by  mentioning  the  fac5l  that 
there  is  an  oat  field  in  Saguache  county, ^Colorado,  that 
up  to  1894  had  produced  twenty- three  consecutive 
crops,  each  of  which  averaged  forty  bushels  to  the 
acre  through  all  the  years.  The  yield  of  the  twenty- 
third  crop  averaged  sixty  bushels,  which  would  indi- 
cate that  the  fertility  of  that  field  was  keeping  up 
remarkably  well  without  rest  or  rotation.  This  unusual 
result  was  made  possible  by  means  of  irrigation  alone, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  much  truth  in  the  theory  that 
the  irrigating  waters  from  the  mountains  contain  great 
quantities  of  mineral  fertilizing  elements  in  solution. 
Even  by  shallow  plowing  and  the  most  shiftless 
methods  of  land  preparation  a  Mexican  farmer  named 
E.  Valdez,  of  Chromo,  Colorado,  produced  twenty-five 
consecutive  crops  of  wheat  on  the  same  soil,  and  with- 
out manure  or  change  of  seed  in  the  interim.     This 


1 6  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

peculiar  result  wa.s  made  possible  only  by  the  use  of 
irrigating  waters,  applied  as  they  were  regardless  of 
scientific  principles  or  any  defined  method  whatever. 
The  yield  the  last  season  was  forty-five  bushels  to  the 
acre,  as  heavy  as  any  throughout  the  quarter  of  a 
century  of  constant  croppage. 

Irrigation  farming  has  peculiar  charadleristics.  It 
is  a  higher  and  more  scientific  industry  than  rain 
farming;  it  succeeds  best  by  what  is  known  as  intensive 
culture,  or  what  is  better  described  as  scientific  culture. 
The  soil  to  be  at  its  best  should  be  carefully  prepared, 
and  cultivation  ought  to  be  minute  and  thorough.  To 
make  such  agriculture  pay,  such  crops  must  be  raised 
as  will  yield  the  greatest  value  to  the  acre.  The  irri- 
gated lands  are  better  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
orchards,  vineyards,  gardens,  potato  fields,  hop-yards, 
tobacco  and  cotton  plantations,  and  whatever  extra 
work  may  be  required  to  cover  the  land  with  water  will 
be  repaid  tenfold  from  the  first  crop  that  is  taken  off. 
In  traveling  in  the  far  west,  over  long  stretches  of 
parched  and  dusty  plains  or  through  mountain  gorges, 
the  writer  has  often  seen  fields,  orchards,  vineyards, 
and  gardens  all  dressed  in  living  green.  The  life, 
vigor,  and  fruitfulness  were  in  surpassing  contrast  to 
the  general  aspecfl.  And  why  this  contrast  ?  Because 
of  the  tapping  of  mountain  streams,  fed  by  crystal 
springs  or  banks  of  perpetual  snow,  and  turnmg  a 
portion  of  their  waters  upon  the  lands.  From  great 
eminences  the  course  of  these  life-giving  waterways 
made  by  the  hands  of  man  could  be  traced  by  the  eye, 
until  they  were  lost  in  the  dimness  of  distance.  There 
was  no  need  being  told  where  were  the  irrigating 


THE   ADVANTAGES   OF   IRRIGATION. 


17 


ditches.  The  eye  of  a  novice  could  mark  them  with 
accuracy  as  they  wound  about  the  foothill  slopes, 
dotting  the  landscape  with  patches  of  emerald,  where 
lone  settlers  and  busy  towns  were  located.  An  illus- 
tration of  this  condition  is  given  in  Fig.  4,  showing  the 


FIG.    4 — DIVIDING    LINE    BETWEEN    DESERT    AND    ORCHARD. 


course  of  an  irrigating  ditch  dividing  the  unbroken 
prairie  and  a  newly  set  orchard. 

It  is  in  the  horticultural  pursuits  that  the  highest 
degree  of  perfedlion  as  the  patrimony  of  modern  irriga- 
tion is  to  be  realized.  Under  any  system  of  irrigation 
where  a  constant  supply  of  water  is  to  be  had  the  hor- 


1 8  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

ticulturist  can  plant  with  almost  a  certainty  of  gather- 
ing a  crop.  Untimely  frosts,  insedls,  and  fungous 
diseases  are  often  to  be  contended  with,  but  it  is  a  great 
consolation  to  feel  sure  that  drouth  cannot  prevent 
the  starting  of  trees,  plants,  and  seeds  in  springtime, 
or  cut  short  a  growing  crop.  Neither  are  floods  likely 
to  overflow,  except  on  low  bottoms,  and  these  are  not 
the  best  places  for  the  most  profitable  orchards.  One 
field  or  a  small  portion  of  it  can  be  watered  without 
the  rest  being  deluged  or  even  sprinkled,  if  desired. 

It  is  the  writer's  desire  at  this  time  to  direcft  the 
attention  of  horticulturists  and  farmers  generally  in  the 
' '  rain  belt ' '  to  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  an  arti- 
ficial supply  of  water  to  their  crops.  Some  may  scout 
the  idea  and  say  it  is  not  pracfticable — that  it  will  not 
pay  to  go  to  so  much  expense  for  the  little  use  to  be 
made  of  the  water ;  but  in  all  seriousness  it  may  be 
said  that  it  will  pay,  and  there  are  many  places  east  of 
the  arid  regions  where  irrigation  is  now  considered  by 
those  who  have  long  tried  it  as  almost  indispensable. 
There  is  scarcely  an  acre  of  ground  under  cultivation 
in  North  America  that  would  not  produce  more  and 
better  crops  if  there  were  at  hand  an  abundant  water- 
supply.  There  are  seasons  now  and  then  in  which  the 
rains  come  just  right  and  irrigation  might  not  be 
needed  even  once,  but  they  are  rare.  Usually  there  are 
several  dry  spells  during  each  year  that  cause  serious 
injury  to  the  crops,  and  were  irrigation  possible  all 
harm  from  this  source  might  be  prevented.  A  very 
little  water  at  the  right  time  would  make  all  the  differ- 
ence with  the  crop  and  turn  into  success  what  other- 
wise would  have  been  a  partial  or  total  failure.     The 


THE  ADVANTAGES  OF   IRRIGATION.  1 9 

work  already  put  upon  the  land  would  be  saved,  as 
well  as  seeds  and  plants.  Satisfadlion  and  plenty 
would  take  the  place  of  disappointment  and  scarcity. 
If  eastern  pomologists  would  only  adopt  irrigation 
there  would  be  no  good  cause  for  having  weakly  plants 
and  trees,  or  for  the  premature  dropping  of  leaves. 
The  buds  would  develop  early,  and  be  plump  and  vig- 
orous. There  would  be  no  winter-killing  of  trees  and 
plants  because  of  their  feeble  condition.  Many  things 
are  considered  tender  that  are  so  in  some  places  only 
because  of  their  inability  to  make  sufficient  growth 
to  fortify  against  the  evaporating  influences  of  the 
winter. 

It  would  not  be  reasonable  to  expecft  that  any  of  the 
many  systems  of  irrigation  can  be  applied  to  all  secflions 
of  our  country,  or  to  every  farm  in  any  secftion.  Neither 
is  it  always  pradlicable  that  all  of  a  large  farm  should 
be  placed  under  irrigation,  except  in  rare  cases.  But 
where  there  is  now,  or  may  be  created,  a  supply  of 
water  that  can  be  drawn  upon  in  time  of  need  for  at 
least  a  small  part  of  the  farm,  it  is  a  great  mistake  not 
to  make  use  of  its  benefits.  There  are  special  crops, 
such  as  asparagus,  celery,  and  the  strawberry,  which 
need  an  amount  of  water  that  is  not  required  by  most 
others,  and  which  could  be  grown  much  more  cheaply 
than  at  present  if  aided  by  irrigation.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  might  be  well  to  add  that  statistics  show  that  in 
all  rainy  countries — that  is,  where  the  farmers  depend 
upon  the  rains  to  make  their  crops — the  seasons  of 
drouth  and  the  seasons  of  too  much  rain  constitute 
three  out  of  every  five,  giving  the  farmer  three  bad 
crops  to  two  good  ones.     As  a  matter  of  fadl,  the  in- 


20  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

trinsic  advantages  of  irrigation  concern  and  are  within 
reach  of  the  farmer  of  the  humid  region  quite  as  much 
as  his  fellow  in  the  arid  climate;  and  in  many,  if  not 
in  most,  cases  his  water  supply  will  cost  him  less,  and 
when  once  applied  will  never  be  given  up.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  when  the  available  waters  of  the 
humid  region  are  examined  in  regard  to  the  supplies  of 
plant  food  they  are  capable  of  giving  to  lands  irrigated 
with  them,  they  will  be  found  to  be  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  as  valuable  in  this  respedl  as  those  of  the  arid 
region. 

Another  suggestion  along  this  line  presents  itself 
right  here  :  As  there  is  no  material  diif erence  in  the  cost 
of  cultivation  of  an  acre  yielding  ten  bushels  of  wheat 
and  another  acre  yielding  sixty  bushels,  it  must  be 
evident  that  the  man  who  gets  only  ten  bushels  pays 
six  times  as  much  as  does  the  man  who  produces  sixty 
bushels.  The  profits  to  be  derived  from  ' '  the  new 
agriculture,"  as  irrigation  has  aptly  been  called,  comes 
not  alone  from  the  annual  return  from  the  watered 
acres,  but  from  the  constantly  increasing  valuation  of 
the  land  itself.  Many  individual  instances  could  be 
cited,  especially  in  regions  devoted  to  fruit  culture, 
where  the  returns  are  almost  fabulous.  I^ands  which 
were  worth  from  two  to  ten  dollars  an  acre  have  by 
the  expenditure  of  from  ten  to  twenty  dollars  an  acre 
in  the  constru(5lion  of  irrigation  works  become  worth 
$300  an  acre  and  upward.  The  same  lands  set  out 
with  suitable  varieties  of  trees  and  vines  have  sold 
within  five  years  of  planting  at|i,ooo  or  more  an  acre. 
So  valuable  are  irrigated  lands  in  Spain  that  they  sell  for 
$720  to  $880  an  acre,  which  is  ten  times  the  price  of 


THK  ADVANTAGES  OF  IRRIGATION.  21 

the  unirrigated,  and  the  same  ratio  of  values  prevails 
elsewhere. 

In  summarizing  the  manifold  advantages  that  the 
irrigation  blessing  has  brought  to  humanity  through 
all  the  ages  of  persevering  man,  and  anticipating  those 
benefits  that  are  to  be  commanded  by  ' '  the  nations  yet 
to  be, "  we  may  conclude  that  irrigation  means  better 
economic  conditions ;  means  small  farms,  orchards, 
and  vineyards;  more  homes  and  greater  comfort  for 
men  of  moderate  means.  It  means  more  intelligence 
and  knowledge  applied  to  farming,  more  profit  from 
crops,  more  freight  and  more  commerce — because 
special  produdls  of  higher  grade  and  better  market 
value  will  be  enhanced.  It  means  association  in  urban 
life  instead  of  isolated  farms.  It  means  the  occupa- 
tion of  small  holdings.  It  means  more  telephones, 
telegraphs,  good  roads,  and  swift  motors  ;  fruit  and 
garden  growths  everywhere  ;  schools  in  closer  prox- 
imity; villages  on  every  hand,  and  such  general  pros- 
perity as  can  hardly  be  dreamed  of  by  those  who  are 
not  familiar  with  the  results  of  even  the  present  in- 
fancy of  irrigation  in  America.  It  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  in  time  the  lessons  conveyed  by  history, 
as  well  as  by  the  daily  pradlice  and  results  of  irrigation 
in  the  arid  region,  will  induce  the  dwellers  in  the 
regions  of  summer  rains  to  procure  for  themselves  at 
least  a  part  of  the  advantages  which  are  equally  within 
their  reach,  putting  an  end  to  the  dreadful  seasons 
when  ' '  the  skies  are  as  brass  and  the  earth  as  a  stone, ' ' 
and  the  labors  of  the  husbandman  are  in  vain. 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE   RELATION   OF   SOILS  TO  IRRIGATION. 


HjT  T  was  the  blind  poet  Milton  who  said,  **  Fame  is 
i  no  plant  that  grows  on  mortal  soil."  He 
9ISas  might  have  added  that  famous  plants  are  to 
grow  on  irrigated  soil.  The  nature,  condition 
and  situation  of  soils  compose  a  most  important  fadlor 
in  successful  irrigation,  and  should  especially  be  under- 
stood by  every  person  who  essays  to  apply  water  by 
artificial  methods.  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  well  to 
understand  that  primarily  soil  is  rock  disintegrated, 
dissolved,  or  pulverized  by  the  action  of  the  air,  water, 
and  ice,  aided  chemically  by  the  various  salts  and  acids 
present  in  the  soil,  and  fertilized  by  decayed  vegeta- 
tion, animal  excretions,  and  chemical  agents. 

Classes  of  Soils. — Nominally  there  are  two  dis- 
tindl  classes  of  soils — the  sedentary  and  transported 
soils,  which  embrace  the  drift  and  alluvial  soils. 
Specifically  soils  are  distindtive  according  to  their 
physical  charadleristics,  and  may  be  classified  as 
gravel,  sand,  clay,  loam,  marl,  lime,  salt,  peat,  muck, 
or  humus.  Pure  sand  consists  almost  entirely  of  small 
grains  of  silica  or  quartz,  and  is  not  a  plant  food. 
Plants  cannot  use  it.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  in 
acids,  and  has  no  adhesive  tendency  ;  hence,  adling  as 
a  divider  in  the  soil,  it  makes  the  land  easy  to  work 
and  facilitates  the  passage  of  roots  in  search  of  food,  and 


THE   REIvATlON  OE   SOILS  TO   IRRIGATION.         23 

also  allows  the  assimilation  of  irrigating  waters.  The 
amount  of  sand  in  the  soil  varies  from  eight  to  more 
than  ninety  per  cent.  It  absorbs  very  little  moisture 
or  other  fertilizing  material  in  the  air,  but  retains  heat 
much  longer  than  does  any  other  soil  constituent. 
From  these  facts,  then,  it  is  evident  that  a  sandy  soil 
will  be  loose,  easy  to  work,  dry,  warm,  and  free  from 
baking,  but  peculiarly  apt  to  suffer  from  drouth  when 
irrigation  is  not  available,  and  lose  valuable  plant  food 
by  leaching,  especially  if  the  subsoil  be  sandy  or 
gravelly. 

Clay  Soils. — Clay  is  a  compound  of  silica  and 
aluminum.  It  is  very  seldom  found  pure,  but  con- 
tains potash,  lime,  ammonia,  etc.,  mixed  with  it,  and 
some  of  these  unite  with  it  to  form  double  silicates, 
which  are  exceedingly  valuable  on  account  of  the  pot- 
ash, lime,  or  ammonia  which  they  furnish  to  plants. 
Clay  is  not  a  plant  food.  It  is  not  taken  up  by  plants 
except  by  a  few  of  the  lower  orders,  but  the  impurities 
in  it — lime,  potash,  etc. — are  absolutely  essential  to 
vegetable  growth,  and  these  at  once  become  soluble 
under  the  influence  of  irrigating  waters.  Red  clays 
always  contain  iron,  and  most  clay  soils  are  rich  in 
potash,  thus  adding  to  their  availability  as  plant  food, 
and  rendering  them  peculiarly  adapted  to  such  plants 
as  require  a  liberal  supply  of  compounds.  Clay  gives 
body  to  the  soil  and  absorbs  moisture  readily.  It 
absorbs  heat  much  more  readily  than  sand  does,  but 
has  not  the  same  power  of  retention.  A  clayey  soil, 
then,  is  usually  rich  in  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  am- 
monia, etc.,  holds  moisture  well,  and  is  adapted  to 
withstand  drouth,  but  is  difficult  to  work  and  apt  to 


24  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

bake  after  having  been  irrigated  in  summer,  and  is 
cold  and  wet  in  spring  and  fall.  The  amount  of  clay 
in  soil  varies  from  ten  to  ninety  per  cent.,  but  the 
quantity  of  pure  clay  in  heavy  soils  rarely  exceeds 
thirty  per  cent.  The  clay  soils  of  the  far  west  are 
locally  called  "adobe,"  because  it  is  of  such  soil  that 
the  adobe  bricks  are  made  by  the  native  Mexicans  and 
used  in  their  simple  architecture.  While  adobe  soils 
are  more  difficult  to  work  they  are  well  adapted  to  irri- 
gation, and  it  is  on  them  that  the  best  results  are  often 
obtained  by  western  irrigators. 

Gumbo  and  Loam. — Gumbo  soil  is  a  term  applied 
to  a  class  of  heavy  soils  prevalent  in  the  south,  having 
a  greasy  feeling  and  a  soap}'^  or  waxy  appearance. 
The  particles  that  compose  the  soil  are  very  small,  less 
than  one  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  in  size,  and  there  is 
but  very  little  true  sand  present.  These  soils  are  always 
rich  in  alkali,  particularly  the  potash  compound.  It 
is  this  potash  that  gives  it  the  soapy  appearance  and 
greasy  feeling.  They  fail  to  scour  the  plow  because 
of  the  absence  of  sand  and  the  extreme  fineness  of  the 
particles.  No  cheap  chemical  can  improve  these  soils, 
but  continual  cropping  gradually  causes  an  improved 
condition  by  the  gradual  removal  of  the  excess  of 
potash.  They  are  especially  adapted  for  grass  and 
hay  crops.  Gumbo  is  more  impervious  to  water  than 
most  soils  are,  and  as  a  rule  requires  much  less  irriga- 
tion, lyoam  soils  comprise  those  molds  ranging  be- 
tween sand  and  clay  and  possessing  more  or  less  each 
of  these  two  constituents.  They  constitute  what  may 
be  termed  the  happy  medium,  and  are  really  the  most 
desirable  kinds  of  earth  on  which  to  ply  the  irrigator's 


THE   RELATION   OF   SOILS   TO    IRRIGATION.         25 

art.  The  term  loam  is  a  most  indefinite  charadleriza- 
tion  on  account  of  the  various  constituents  which  it 
contains.  For  instance,  a  heavy  clay  loam  has  but 
from  ten  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  sand;  a  clay  loam 
is  twenty-five  to  forty  per  cent,  of  sand,  and  the  sandy 
loam  is  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  sand, 
while  the  light  sandy  contains  from  seventy-five  to 
ninety  per  cent. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  by  pracftical  experiments 
that  one  hundred  pounds  of  sand  will  absorb  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  water  ;  one  hundred  pounds  of  loam, 
forty  pounds;  one  hundred  pounds  of  clay  loam,  fifty 
pounds;  one  hundred  pounds  of  clay,  seventy  pounds. 
This  explains  why  some  soils  always  appear  drier  than 
others,  why  some  soils  will  stand  a  drouth  so  much 
longer  than  others,  and  why,  after  an  irrigation,  some 
soils  become  like  a  thick  paste  while  others  are  dry. 
Sandy  soils  usually  break  up  loose  and  mellow  when 
dug,  forked,  or  worked  in  any  way;  black  land  is  stiff, 
breaks  up  in  hard  clods  when  worked  either  too  wet 
or  too  dry,  and  requires  more  cultivation  both  before 
and  after  plants  are  put  in  it  than  does  sandy  soil. 

Humus. — The  humus  is  the  organic  portion  of 
the  soil,  resulting  from  decayed  vegetable  matter.  It 
is  of  a  dark  brown  or  black  color,  the  blacker  the 
better.  A  good  example  is  well-rotted  leaf  mold.  The 
chief  constituent  of  humus  is  carbon,  but  it  contains 
all  the  other  compounds  found  in  plants,  and  by  its 
gradual  decay  these  all  become  available  as  plant  food 
in  the  most  desirable  form.  Humus  is  the  chief  source 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  A  black  soil  rich  in  humus  is 
sure  to  be  rich  in  nitrogen.     The  remarkable  fertility 


26  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

of  virgin  soils  is  largely  due  to  the  nitrogenous  humus 
which  they  contain.  Of  all  vSoil  constituents,  humus 
has  the  greatest  power  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture, 
and  to  draw  moisture  from  the  subsoil  by  capillary 
attraction,  and  it  is  in  this  power  that  is  manifCvSted 
its  valuable  utility  immediately  on  the  application  of 
irrigating  waters.  It  also  possesses  in  a  high  degree 
the  power  to  absorb  ammonia  from  the  air,  and  by  its 
dark  color  it  adds  warmth  to  the  soil  during  the  day, 
while  by  cooling  quickly  at  night  it  assists  in  causing 
dew  to  be  deposited  upon  the  soil  which  contains  it. 
Humus  also  improves  the  texture  of  the  soils,  by  mak- 
ing clay  soil  more  friable  and  sandy  soil  more  compadl 
and  retentive.  The  amount  of  humus  in  fertile  soils 
is  quite  variable,  but  usually  runs  from  three  to  seven 
or  eight  per  cent. 

The  Acids. — In  all  soils  we  find  two  essential, 
acids,  known  scientifically  as  humic  and  ulmic.  The 
first  is  the  acid  in  the  humus,  or  vegetable  and  animal 
matter  in  the  soil.  As  animal  life  is  built  by  vegetable 
matter,  it  must  eventually  turn  back  to  vegetable  mat- 
ter. Ulmic  acids  are  those  that  exude  from  the  roots 
of  some  plants.  We  should  remember  that  nitrogen  is 
the  costHest  of  all  plant  foods  and  the  most  difficult 
to  retain  in  the  soil,  and  plants  must  have  it,  for  it 
corredls  this  humic  acid  in  the  plant  as  well  as  in  'the 
soil.  The  ulmic  acids  are  seldom  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  do  harm.  But  the  humic  acids  when  shut  off 
from  the  proportions  of  nitrogen  or  potash — both 
alkalies— become  too  concentrated,  or  the  dead  microbes 
become  poisonous  to  plant  life,  as  the  great  French 
chemist  Pasteur  would  have  it.     Now  humic  acid  has 


THE   RELATION  OF  SOII.S  TO   IRRIGATION.         27 

the  same  effedl  both  in  plant  life  and  in  the  soil — for 
all  nature  was  torn  off  the  same  bolt.  If  the  soil  is 
very  wet  for  two  or  three  weeks  and  is  well  filled  with 
vegetable  matter,  although  the  plant  is  overgrown,  it 
becomes  sick  just  as  much  as  a  horse  with  colic.  But 
keep  the  soil  so  the  air  can  penetrate  it  and  neutralize 
these  acids,  and  the  more  of  this  vegetable  matter  the 
better  and  heavier  the  plant  will  fruit.  One  strong 
point  in  favor  of  irrigation  is  that  it  neutralizes  these 
acids  and  brings  them  more  surely  under  the  control 
of  the  scientific  cultivator,  so  that  they  niay  be  more 
fully  utilized  in  the  structural  growth  of  the  plant. 

Color  and  Texture. — The  color  of  soil  depends 
exclusively  on  its  composition,  humus  forming  nearly 
a  black  soil,  while  sand  gives  a  light  yellow,  and  iron 
oxide  produces  a  red  color.  The  darker  soils,  other 
things  being  equal,  have  the  highest  absorptive  power 
toward  solar  heat.  This  is  shown  when  muck  is 
applied  to  the  surface  of  snow  in  the  spring.  We 
have  often  found  in  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  a  dark,  chocolate  loam  interspersed 
here  and  there  by  deposits  of  a  lighter  and  more  chalky 
nature,  all  being,  however,  extremely  rich  in  gypsum 
and  salts  that  are  valuable  in  the  produ(5lion  of  fruits, 
cereals,  and  vegetables.  Investigation  shows  that  one 
acre  foot  in  depth  of  a  fairly  good  agricultural  soil 
contains  four  thousand  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
eight  thousand  pounds  of  potash,  sixteen  thousand 
pounds  of  nitrogen  and  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  chlorine, 
sulphur,  and  silica — all  of  which  are  more  fully  ren- 
dered available  in  maturing  plant  life  when  irrigation 
is  brought  into  pradlice  upon  them. 


28  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

It  has  long  been  recognized  by  praAical  men,  as 
well  as  by  many  of  our  scientific  investigators,  that  the 
texture  of  the  soil  and  the  physical  relation  to  moisture 
and  heat  have  much  to  do  with  the  distribution  and 
development  of  crops.  Years  ago  Johnson  went  so  far 
as  to  say,  in  "  How  Crops  Feed  " :  *  *  It  is  a  well-recog- 
nized fadl  that  next  to  temperature  the  water-supply  is 
the  most  influential  facflor  in  the  produdl  of  the  crop. 
Poor  soils  give  good  crops  in  seasons  of  plentiful  and 
well-distributed  rain  or  when  skilfully  irrigated,  but 
insufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  is  an  evil  that  no 
supplies  of  plant  food  can  neutralize." 

Recent  investigations  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
mechanical  arrangement  of  the  soil  grains  determines  its 
fertility  more  than  the  chemical  properties  it  may  pos- 
sess. Experiments  show  that  the  greater  the  number  of 
soil  grains  in  a  given  space  the  greater  the  amount  of 
air  space,  because  the  small  grains,  being  light,  arrange 
themselves  more  loosely  than  the  larger  or  heavier 
ones.  In  a  good  wheat  soil,  when  dry,  there  is  at 
least  fifty  per  cent,  of  air  space — that  is,  in  a  cubic 
foot  of  soil  one-half  of  the  space  is  occupied  by  the  soil 
and  one-half  by  the  air.  But  during  the  process  of 
irrigation  the  interstices  become  filled  with  water,  and 
by  too  copious  or  too  prolonged  an  irrigation  the  soil 
becomes  saturated,  which  excludes  the  air  from  the 
soil — air  so  necessary  to  plant  growth.  A  porous 
subsoil  removes  the  water  of  saturation  and  assists  in 
preserving  the  moisture  adhering  to  the  particles  of 
soil.  The  latter  is  the  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
crops.  In  determining  the  condition  of  moisture  in 
the  soil  in  the  prac5lical  application  of  water,  it  is  only 


THK  REI.ATION  OF  SOILS  TO  IRRIGATION.         29 

necessary  to  take  out  a  handful  of  earth  a  few  inches 
below  the  surface.  If  the  earth  is  of  sufficient  moisture 
to  ball  in  the  hand  irrigation  at  that  time  is  not  needed. 
This  is  a  simple  and  inflexible  rule. 

Temperature. — The  relation  of  soil  to  heat  is 
largely  dependent  upon  the  relation  of  soil  to  moisture 
and  the  amount  of  moisture  contained  in  the  soil.  It 
takes  more  heat  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound  of 
water  one  degree  than  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
pound  of  soil  the  same  amount;  so  that  the  more 
moisture  there  is  in  a  soil  the  more  material  there  is  to 
be  heated,  and  this  added  material  is  more  difficult  to 
heat  than  the  substance  of  the  soil  itself.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  soil  will  depend  also  upon  the  amount 
of  evaporation  of  the  soil.  It  has  been  shown  that 
from  this  cause  alone  the  temperature  of  the  sandy  soil 
may  be  much  cooler  at  midday  than  the  temperature 
of  the  clay  soil.  If  the  soils  had  been  dry  this  would 
have  been  just  the  reverse,  and  the  substance  of  the 
clay  is  more  difficult  to  heat  than  the  substance  of  the 
sand.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  mean  temperature 
of  a  sandy  soil  is  lower  than  that  of  an  adjacent  clay 
soil,  while  the  sandy  soil  is  drier  than  the  clay  soil. 
These  are  conditions  of  a  lower  temperature  and  a 
drier  soil,  which  are  used  in  greenhouse  culture  to 
force  the  ripening  of  a  plant;  while  the  higher  tem- 
perature and  the  greater  moisture  content  of  the  clay 
soil  are  conditions  used  in  greenhouse  culture  to  pro- 
duce a  leafy  development  and  to  retard  the  ripening  of 
the  plant. 

Gravity. — The  relation  of  soils  to  water  resolves 
itself   into    two    lines    of    investigation — the    forces 


30  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

which  move  the  water  and  the  conditions  which 
determine  the  relative  rate  of  flow.  The  forces  which 
move  the  water  within  the  soil  are  gravity  and  the 
tension  or  contracting  power  of  the  exposed  water  sur- 
face. The  approximate  extent  of  the  water  surface 
can  be  calculated  from  the  mechanical  analysis  of  the 
soil.  The  surface  tension  and  effedl  of  manures  and 
fertilizers  on  the  surface  tension  can  be  found  by  the 
ordinary  method  of  the  rise  of  liquids  in  capillary  tubes, 
using  as  a  solvent  pure  water,  or  extracts  of  the  soil, 
representing  as  nearly  as  possible  the  ordinary  soil 
moisture.  The  different  fertilizing  materials  have  a 
very  marked  effedl  on  the  pulling  power  of  the  water. 
The  same  class  of  substances  may  differ  widely  in  their 
effe<5l.  Kainit,  for  instance,  increases  the  surface 
tension  of  pure  water,  but  nitrate  of  potash  lowers  it 
very  considerably. 

Nutritive  Dissemination. — The  absorption  of 
nutritive  matter  by  the  soil  is  a  phenomenon  of  uni- 
versal occurrence  and  widest  significance  as  influencing 
the  conditions  of  plant  growth.  Its  manifestation  is 
among  the  most  common  processes  of  nature;  yet  not 
till  within  the  past  half  century  was  it  fully  recog- 
nized or  appreciated  in  its  bearings  on  plant  nutrition. 
Solutions,  as  a  result  of  our  modern  irrigating  methods, 
are  known  to  part  with  their  solid  constituents  on 
passing  through  any  considerable  quantity  of  soil. 
They  are  thus  disseminated  more  evenly  throughout 
the  top-soil,  and  are  left  there  on  deposit,  as  it  were, 
to  be  drawn  upon  by  the  growing  vegetation,  and 
hence  it  is  that  irrigation  improves  the  mechanical  con- 
dition of  soils  and  makes  them  the  more  readily  sub- 


THK   RKI.ATION  OF  SOILS  TO   IRRIGATION.         3 1 

servient  to  the  agriculturist.  Some  authorities  claim 
that  soils  which  have  been  cropped  until  the  soluble 
ingredients,  organic  elements,  and  humus  have  been 
materially  decreased  retain  less  water  and  dry  out 
more  readily  than  when  there  is  a  larger  amount  of 
organic  matter  present  in  the  soil.  This  depletion, 
however,  may  easily  be  obviated  by  the  scientific 
application  of  fertilizers,  the  growing  of  nitrogenous 
plants,  or  by  crop  rotation. 

Capillary  Action. — In  concluding  our  observa- 
tions on  this  important  topic  of  soils  the  matter  of  cul- 
tivation must  not  be  overlooked.     The  success  of  irri- 


FIG.    5 — CAPILLARY  TUBES   OF   SOIL. 

gation  cannot  be  made  complete  without  cultivation, 
and  it  is  a  fault  too  commonly  observed  among  irriga- 
tors that  they  are  inclined  to  depend  too  much  upon 
irrigation  and  not  nearly  enough  upon  cultivation. 
The  retention  of  the  moisture  when  once  supplied  to  the 
soil  by  means  of  irrigation  may  be  largely  controlled  by 
keeping  the  topsoil  well  pulverized,  so  as  to  break  up 
the  capillary  tubes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  a  being  the  sur- 
face, b  the  capillary  tubes,  and  c  the  subsoil.  The  more 
recent  scientists  all  agree  that  the  soil  is  full  of  small 
tubes,  through  which  the  moisture  from  below  finds  its 
way  to  the  surface  and  escapes.  If  these  tubes  can  be 
closed  the  water  will  not  evaporate  so  readily.     This 


32  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

is  done  by  loosening  the  topsoil,  not  by  stirring  it  to 
such  a  depth  as  to  injure  the  roots  of  the  plants,  but  in 
a  manner  so  as  to  break  the  tops  of  the  tubes  and  throw 
a  covering  of  loose  soil  over  the  ground,  and  at  the 
same  time  destroy  the  robber  weeds  which  not  only 
use  the  moisture  but  take  away  plant  food  as  well. 
This  loose  soil  is  a  mulch — a  blanket  which  prevents 
loss  of  moisture  and  protec5ls  against  the  diredl  rays  of 
the  sun.  There  are,  of  course,  certain  kinds  of  cereal 
crops,  such  as  wheat  and  oats,  which  by  ordinary 
planting  do  not  admit  of  cultivation,  and  these  from 
necessity  naturally  require  a  larger  quantity  of  water 
than  do  the  cultivated  or  hoed  crops.  This  subjec5l  of 
cultivation,  as  well  as  that  pertaining  to  the  fertilizing 
elements  of  irrigating  waters,  will  be  treated  in  succeed- 
ing chapters. 

Addition  of  Silt. — In  most  irrigated  countries, 
and  especially  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  the 
principal  irrigation  of  crops  is  done  in  the  spring  or 
early  summer.  At  this  time  the  water  is  usually  filled 
with  some  sediment  or  silt,  which  is  loosened  through 
erosion  by  the  rapid  melting  of  snow  at  the  higher  ele- 
vations, and  the  rush  of  water  to  the  various  rivers 
from  which  canals  for  irrigation  are  taken  out.  This 
sediment  is  of  especial  value  to  land  in  most  instances 
if  the  water  is  properly  or  evenly  applied.  When  water 
is  condu(5led  to  the  surface  by  gentle  flooding  it  runs 
slowly  and  allows  the  sediment  to  settle  on  the  land  in 
greater  quantities  and  more  evenly  than  by  any  other 
means,  thus  giving  greater  produdliveness  to  the  land. 
This  f  a<5l  is  especially  shown  by  the  enormous  and  con- 
tinued produc5livity  of  the  soil  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 


THE   RELATION  OF  SOILS  TO   IRRIGATION.         33 

which  are  flooded  by  the  annual  overflow,  leaving  a 
large  deposit  of  sediment. 

If  the  soil  is  of  such  texture  that  it  will  bake  when 
water  is  applied  to  the  surface,  or  the  slope  should  be 
too  great,  furrows  are  made  with  a  roller  or  furrower 
at  such  an  angle  to  the  slope  of  the  land  as  to  give  the 
water  the  proper  fall  to  prevent  erosion  of  the  surface 
soil  and  to  facilitate  the  deposition  of  the  sediment. 
By  these  methods  the  soil  is  enriched  annually  with 
little  or  no  additional  expense,  and  the  crops  are  in- 
creased accordingly.  Care  should  be  taken,  however, 
lest  the  crop  be  irrigated  too  freely  in  the  early  spring 
while  the  water  is  cold.  The  soil  is  thus  likely  to 
become  chilled,  which  at  least  retards  the  growth  of 
crops.  Under  such  circumstances  a  farmer  may  think 
the  soil  is  thiii  and  poor,  but  this  deduction  results 
merely  from  lack  of  experience. 

I^arge  amounts  of  fertilizing  material  thus  natur- 
ally find  their  way  to  the  soil  in  the  water  used,  tending 
to  counteradl  the  drain  on  the  land  due  to  the  removal 
of  crops.  As  a  result  of  a  five- month  study  of  the 
water  of  the  Rio  Grande,  a  stream  which  carries  exces- 
sive quantities  of  silt,  it  was  estimated  that  in  using 
one  acre-foot  of  the  muddy  water  in  irrigating,  955 
pounds  of  potassium  sulphate,  fifty-eight  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  fifty-three  pounds  of  nitrogen 
were  added  to  each  acre.  A  thirty-bushel  crop  of 
wheat  usually  removes  twenty-eight  pounds  of  potash, 
twenty-three  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  forty-five 
pounds  of  nitrogen.  It  is  also  true  that  considerably 
more  than  one  foot  of  water  is  generally  applied  to  the 
land  each  year  in  irrigating.     It  would  seem  to  be 


34  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Utterly  impossible  to  exhaust  the  soil  irrigated  with 
such  water.  Aside  from  this  there  is  the  humus  com- 
ing in  the  form  of  leaf  mold  and  decayed  vegetable 
matter,  which  is  considered  the  most  valuable  element 
of  all  in  improving  the  natural  soils  of  the  west. 

Manure  on  Irrigated  Soil. — After  being  assured 
that  a  great  surplus  of  fertilizing  ingredients  is  yearly 
deposited  on  the  land  by  the  irrigating  waters,  the 
reader  might  conclude  that  the  application  of  barn-yard 
manure  would  be  quite  superfluous.  It  has,  however, 
been  conclusively  proven  in  pra<5lice  that  even  in  the 
case  of  wheat,  which  may  remove  only  half  the 
nitrogen  yearly  deposited  by  some  rivers,  the  crop  is 
very  considerably  increased  when  the  land  receives  a 
moderate  dressing  of  barn-yard  manure  every  three  or 
four  years,  while  it  is  often  impossible  to  successfully 
raise  vegetables  unless  barn-yard  manure  is  freely  em- 
ployed. It  is  claimed  by  some  that  these  good  effec5ls 
are  due  to  the  improved  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil 
and  its  increased  power  for  holding  moisture,  and 
doubtless  these  fadls  may  have  something  to  do  with 
the  result,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  real  explanation 
is  to  be  found  in  the  action  of  soil  ferments.  Nitrogen 
may  exist  in  the  soil  even  in  excess  and  yet  not  be  in 
a  form  available  for  plants  to  feed  upon.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  other  fertilizers. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
is  reduced  to  nitric  acid  by  meians  of  living  bacteria, 
which  are  multiplied  by  fermentation,  and  this  occurs 
most  rapidly  in  decomposing  barn-yard  manure.  How 
bacteria  perform  this  useful  work  is  not  fully  under- 
stood, but  it  has  long  been  noticed  that  a  dressing  of 


THK  RELATION   OF  SOILS  TO   IRRIGATION.         35 

barn-yard  manure  produces  fertilizing  results  much 
greater  than  could  be  expec5led  from  the  quantity  of 
plant  food  contained  therein.  Chemical  analysis  often 
discovers  quantities  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  which 
seem  amply  sufficient  to  produce  remunerative  crops 
and  yet  the  soil  is  pradlically  poor.  It  would  thus 
seem  that  nitrogen  may  exist  in  the  soil  in  an  inert 
form  in  large  quantities  and  not  be  available  for  plant 
food  until  subje(5l  to  the  decomposing  effec5ts  of  bac- 
teria. It  has  also  been  found  that  these  ba(5leria  mul- 
tiply and  work  most  actively  quite  near  the  surface  of 
irrigated  soil.  This  accounts  for  a  phenomenon  fre- 
quently experienced  in  various  irrigated  distridls. 
Where  it  has  been  necessary  to  scrape  off  the  surface 
of  the  soil  in  order  to  make  it  level  enough  to  irrigate, 
the  land  so  scraped  remains  comparatively  infertile  for 
a  number  of  years.  It  is  advisable  to  apply  barn-yard 
manure  to  irrigated  soils  by  means  of  a  manure 
spreader  so  as  to  break  up  all  large  lumps.  If  these 
are  placed  in  the  dry  soil  in  their  entirety  they  become 
fang-burned  and  prove  a  great  detriment  to  the  suc- 
ceeding crop,  and  it  may  require  several  seasons  of 
excessive  irrigation  to  disintegrate  and  render  them 
available.  To  secure  best  results  from  manure  it  must 
be  well  incorporated  in  the  soil  by  plowing  under  or 
harrowing  in. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
THE  TREATMENT  OF  ALKALI. 


'TT^  o  THE  average  western  farmer  alkali  is  the 
^  *  I  greatest  bugbear  with  which  he  has  to  con- 
^^iil  tend  in  his  tillage  operations.  The  soils  of 
the  older  eastern  states  are  not  troubled  in 
this  way,  and  are  too  often  deficient  in  alkaline  salts, 
for  no  soil  is  productive  when  these  ingredients  are 
entirely  lacking.  Chemically  considered,  alkali  is  one 
of  a  class  of  caustic  bases — soda,  potash,  ammonia,  and 
lithia — the  distinguishing  peculiarities  of  which  are 
solubility  in  alcohol  and  water,  the  power  of  uniting 
with  oils  and  fats  to  form  soap,  neutralizing,  reddening 
several  yellows,  and  changing  reddened  litmus  to  blue. 
Fixed  alkalies  are  potash  and  soda.  Vegetable  alka- 
lies are  known  as  alkaloids,  and  volatile  alkalies  are 
composed  largely  of  ammonia,  so  called  in  distindlion 
to  fixed  alkalies.  The  principal  compounds  or  salts  of 
the  alkalies  with  which  soil  is  impregnated  are  Glau- 
ber's salts  or  sulphate  of  soda,  washing  soda  or  car- 
bonate of  soda,  and  common  salt.  In  much  smaller 
proportions  are  found  sulphate  of  potash,  phosphate 
of  soda,  nitrate  of  soda,  saltpeter,  and  even  carbonate 
of  ammonia.  A  majority  of  the  last  five  are  recog- 
nized fertilizers.  The  most  injurious  of  the  three 
principal  salts  is  the  carbonate  of  soda.  Its  property 
of  combining  with  vegetable  mold,  otherwise  known 
36 


THE   TREATMENT  OF  ALKALI.  37 

as  humus,  and  forming  with  it,  when  dry,  a  black 
compound,  has  given  the  name  of  black  alkali  lands  to 
those  of  which  it  is  the  principal  saline  constituent. 
In  time  of  drouth  these  can  readily  be  distinguished 
by  the  dark  rings  left  on  the  margin  of  the  dried-up 
puddles.  As  Glauber's  salt  and  common  salt  do  not 
possess  this  property,  the  soils  impregnated  with  them 
remain  chiefly  white  and  are  known  as  white  alkali 
lands. 

Formation  of  Alkali  Salts. — Alkali  is  a  natural 
element  of  the  earth,  the  same  as  other  minerals. 
When  the  rocks  on  the  mountains  pulverize  and  the 
sediments  wash  down  on  the  plains,  they  bring  the 
alkali  along  and  deposit  it  in  the  soil.  The  same 
alkali  salts  are  formed  everywhere  in  the  world,  but 
in  countries  having  abundant  rainfall  they  currently 
wash  through  the  soil  into  natural  drainage,  while  in 
regions  where  rainfall  is  deficient,  the  scant  moisture 
carries  them  down  only  a  little  way  into  the  soil,  from 
which  they  rise  to  the  surface  by  the  evaporation  of 
water,  and  are  thus  accumulated  at  or  near  the  top  of 
the  soil.  It  is  right  there  that  nearly  all  the  damage 
is  done.  The  water  in  the  depths  of  the  soil  is  rarely 
strongly  enough  impregnated  to  hurt  the  roots  of 
plants  diredlly.  The  alkali  is  all  through  the  soil,  but 
is  usually  worse  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface. 
It  rises  to  the  surface  with  each  wetting  of  the  ground, 
in  the  same  manner  as  a  wick.  Different  wicks  will 
raise  water  or  coal  oil  to  different  hights,  according  as 
they  are  closely  woven  or  loose,  like  candle  wicking. 
The  close  wick  will  raise  the  fluid  higher  in  the  end, 
but  it  will  raise  to  the  highest  point  more  slowly  than 


38  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

with  the  loose  wicking.  Just  so  in  the  soils.  The 
close  ones  will  raise  the  soil  water  from  a  greater 
depth  than  will  the  loose,  sandy  ones,  but  the  latter 
will  bring  it  up  quicker  to  the  full  hight  to  which  it 
can  rise. 

Soils  Containing  Alkali. — Alkali  is  always  worse 
in  clay  soils  than  in  sandy  ones.  This  is  because  it 
rises  to  the  surface  from  a  greater  depth.  In  the  arid 
country  the  rains  often  wet  the  vSoil  only  a  few  inches 
deep,  and  the  alkali  forms  at  the  bottom  of  the  moist- 
ure and  makes  hard  cakes  called  hard-pan — for  hard- 
pan  is  only  a  soil  full  of  alkali  packed  hard.  We 
rarely  come  in  contadl  with  alkali  in  sandy  soil,  and  if 
it  should  prevail  in  such  soils  it  would  do  no  special 
harm.  The  adlion  of  the  weather  for  ages  has  caused 
it  to  leach  out  as  rapidly  as  it  formed. 

The  vineyards  of  the  Hacienda  de  los  Homos,  in 
Cohahuila,  Mexico,  are  planted  in  stiff  adobe  soil 
which  by  the  alkaline  efflorescence  has  become  as  white 
as  paper.  A  vineyard  which  has  existed  for  several 
years  is  marvelously  vigorous,  and  there  is  no  appear- 
ance that  this  condition  will  change.  At  Viesca,  Co- 
hahuila, the  clay  soil  of  the  public  square  seems  as  if 
it  were  covered  with  snow.  It  produces,  nevertheless, 
magnificent  trees  and  rose-bushes.  From  this  it  would 
seem  that  the  relation  of  alkali  to  soils  is  often  misun- 
derstood, and  is  considered  more  injurious  than  it  really 
is  to  the  growth  of  vines,  shrubbery,  and  trees. 

Effects  of  Alkali. — There  are,  however,  many 
tender  garden  and  field  crops  that  are  badly  injured 
even  -by  the  white  alkalies  that  we  have  seen  under 
such  peculiar  conditions  in  Mexico.     While  the  corro- 


THE  TREATMENT   OF  ALKALI.  39 

sive  a(5lion  exerted  by  the  alkali  salts  upon  the  root 
crowns  and  upper  roots  of  plants  is  the  most  common 
source  of  injury,  there  is  another  kind  of  damage 
which  manifests  itself,  "mainly  in  the  heavier  class  of 
soils  thus  affli(5led,  when  the  soluble  salts  consist 
largely  of  carbonates  of  soda  and  potash.  This  is  the 
great  difficulty,  or  almost  impossibility,  of  producing  a 
condition  of  true  tilth,  in  consequence  of  the  now  well- 
known  tendency  of  alkaline  solutions  to  maintain  all 
true  clay  in  the  most  impalpably  divided  or  tamped 
condition,  that  of  well- worked  potter's  clay,  instead  of 
the  flocculent  condition  it  assumes  in  a  well-tilled  soil. 

Waters  Carrying  Alkali. — There  are  some 
classes  of  water  which  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  for 
purposes  of  irrigation.  Thus  it  was  at  one  time  pro- 
posed to  use  the  waters  of  Kern  and  Tulare  lakes  in 
California  for  irrigation,  but  careful  investigation 
showed  that  these  waters  were  strongly  alkaline  and 
that  their  continued  use  would  deposit  on  the  surface 
a  sufficient  coating  of  salt  to  render  the  lands  sterile. 
The  beds  of  these  lakes  are  coated  with  a  deep  stratum 
of  alkali.  Similarly  some  artesian  waters,  and  even 
the  waters  from  some  flowing  streams,  like  the  Salt 
Creek  in  Southern  Arizona,  for  instance,  would  result 
in  the  produdlion  of  alkali. 

Alkali  is  chiefly  the  result  of  defedlive  irrigation  by 
permitting  evaporation  of  sub-surface  water,  thereby 
leaving  alkali  on  the  surface  ;  but  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  damage  is  brought  about  by  the  rise  of  the  sub- 
surface water-level  by  lateral  soaking  from  high-line 
canals,  and  the  trouble  is  greatly  aggravated  and  ex- 
tended by  the  extravagant  use  of  water. 


40  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

In  irrigating  light  soils  very  small  streams  of  water 
should  be  used  ;  otherwise,  if  the  drainage  is  good 
there  is  danger  of  washing  out  the  soluble  fertilizing 
elements,  leaving  only  the  coarse  mineral  constituents, 
and  rendering  the  soil  less  fertile  and  produc5live.  This 
precaution  is  especially  necessary  when  using  the  clear, 
pure  water  from  springs  or  artesian  wells,  which  car- 
ries ordinarily  little  of  the  rich  fertilizing  sediment 
characfleristic  of  streams  which  flow  for  long  distances 
through  alluvial  regions.  In  the  employment  of  the 
latter,  if  well  charged  with  sediment,  the  use  of  a  large 
irrigating  head  is  frequently  advantageous,  as  it  gives 
an  opportunity  for  a  uniform  settlement  of  the  sedi- 
ment while  the  water  is  entering  the  soil. 

Remedies  for  Alkali. — The  remedies  for  the  im- 
provement of  soils  surcharged  with  the  neutral  alka- 
line salts,  the  texture  of  which  is  very  compadl  and  ad- 
hesive, are  thorough  tillage,  the  leaching  out  of  the 
alkali  by  irrigations  combined  with  either  natural  or 
artificial  drainage,  and  frequent  irrigation  of  the  soil, 
assuring  the  intermixture  of  the  surface  deposit  of 
alkali  with  the  lower  strata  of  soil,  and  thus  diluting 
it  and  partially  neutralizing  its  injurious  presence.  As 
shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  cultivation  also  checks 
evaporation,  and  hence  currently  lessens  the  deposits 
of  alkali  on  the  surface.  A  loose,  dry  top  soil  adls  as  a 
cushion  of  earth  and  air,  intercepting  the  continuity  of 
the  upward  passage  of  moisture  along  the  lower  plane 
of  cultivation. 

The  writer  has  more  recently  been  asked  by  a  num- 
ber of  correspondents  to  give  an  opinion  regarding  the 
suitability  of  stable  manure  and   other   fertilizers  as 


I^HE  TREATMENT  OI^  ALKALI.  41 

absorbents  of  the  alkaline  salts.  Under  the  impression 
that  alkali  land  is  poor  in  plant-food,  many  farmers 
have  tried  such  methods  with  varying  degrees  of  suc- 
cess. As  a  rule,  these  applications  are  not  only  use- 
less but  even  harmful.  From  their  very  mode  of 
formation,  alkali  soils  are  exceptionally  rich  in  plant- 
food,  so  that  the  addition  of  more  can  do  no  good.  In 
case  stable  manure  is  used  on  black  alkali  ground,  a 
pungent  odor  of  ammonia  is  given  off  whenever  the 
sun  shines,  and  plants  otherwise  doing  well  are  thus 
injured  or  killed.  When  well  plowed  in,  stable 
manure  will  often  prevent  to  some  extent  the  rise  of 
alkali  by  diminishing  evaporation,  but  its  usefulness 
in  that  respe(5l  is  readily  replaced  by  good  tillage. 
The  main  benefit  obtained  is  the  addition  of  humus  to 
soils  that  have  been  whitened  by  alkali  adlion. 

Potash  salts,  especially  kainit,  are  wholly  useless 
and  add  to  the  alkali  trouble.  Potash  is  always  abun- 
dantly present  in  alkali  lands,  even  in  the  water-soluble 
condition.  Nitrates  also  are  always  present  in  alkali 
soils  in  sufficient  amounts  for  plant  growth  and  some- 
times in  excess.  Phosphates  may  be  useful,  but  will 
rarely  be  needed  for  some  years.  Green  manuring, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  a  very  desirable  improvement  on 
all  alkali  lands,  and  for  this  purpose  such  crops  as 
alfalfa,  alsike,  pea-vines,  salt-bush,  and  soy-beans,  or 
even  buckwheat,  can  be  utilized.  Of  all  grain  crops 
for  while  or  black  alkali  land  there  is  nothing  so  good 
as  barley,  with  rye  next  in  order  and  then  oats,  wheat 
being  most  unsuited  of  all.  We  have  never  .tried  the 
new  Russian  grain  speltz,  but  believe  from  its  habit  of 
growth  that  it  will  stand  close  to  barley  as  an  alkali 


42  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

tolerant.  In  the  semi-tropic  regions,  where  frosts  are 
not  severe,  the  imported  Australian  salt-bush,  botani- 
cally  known  as  A  triplex  semibaccata,  has  proven  emi- 
nently satisfac5lory  as  a  resistant,  at  the  same  time 
proving  a  desirable  browsing  forage  for  live  stock. 

The  Flooding  System. — The  most  effe<5live 
means  of  getting  rid  of  ordinary  white  alkali  is  by 
washing  it  out  of  the  land.  This  can  be  accomplished 
by  digging  open  ditches  at  a  lower  level  than  the  sur- 
face of  the  land  to  be  treated,  and  carrying  them  to 
the  nearest  natural  outlet.  Then  by  running  water 
over  the  land  into  the  drains  without  allowing  it  to 
stand  long  enough  to  soak  into  the  ground  and  carry 
the  dissolved  alkali  with  it,  most  of  the  alkaH  that  has 
accumulated  at  the  surface  will  be  removed.  By  re- 
peating this  treatment  a  few  times  land  can  be  prac- 
tically freed  from  alkali,  unless  it  is  exceptionally  bad. 
Another  plan  is  to  use  the  blind  ditcher,  a  machine 
much  like  the  old  ox  plows  used  in  Illinois  and  Iowa 
thirty  years  ago  to  make  blind  ditches  along  the  prairie 
sloughs.  This  implement  is  calculated  to  run  ditches 
from  four  to  six  inches  lower  than  the  plowed  ground, 
every  sixty  or  eighty  feet  across  the  tilled  ground,  to 
serve  as  drains.  Another  plan,  and  to  our  notion  the 
most  practicable  one  suggested,  as  well  as  the  most 
expensive,  is  to  underlay  alkali  land  with  vitrified 
sewer  pipe.  This  will  last  a  lifetime  and  will  certainly 
get  away  with  the  alkali. 

In  many  cases  the  over-irrigation  of  bench  or  slope 
lands  has  caused  first  the  lower  slopes  and  then  the 
bottom  lands  to  be  overrun  with  alkali  salts,  although 
before  irrigation  was  pra<5liced  these  lands  were  exempt 


THE  TREATMENT  OP  ALKALI.  43 

from  them.  In  some  portions  of  the  San  Luis  valley, 
in  Southern  Colorado  and  elsewhere  in  the  west,  this 
trouble  has  become  most  serious,  fertile  lands  long 
under  successful  cultivation  being  rendered  useless  by- 
thousands  of  acres,  unless  an  expensive  system  of 
under  drain  age  is  undertaken.  One  plan  which  can  be' 
operated  early  in  the  spring,  before  the  regular  irri- 
gating season,  has  been  tried  quite  successfully  and  is 
described  in  a  few  words  :  An  eighty-acre  tra(5t  is 
divided  into  plots  or  rooms  8  x  32  rods  by  means  of 
dikes,  such  as  described  in  the  Mexican  border  system 
of  applying  water.  This  should  be  done  in  the  fall  so 
that  they  will  be  solid  in  the  vSpring.  The  formation 
in  the  San  Luis  valley  is  first  a  surface  soil  of  two  feet 
over  two  feet  of  clay  and  gravel,  then  eight  inches 
of  quicksand  overlying  the  hard-pan,  which  is  from 
eight  to  eighteen  inches  thick.  Below  this  is  forty 
feet  of  dry  sand. 

As  soon  as  the  frost  is  out,  and  while  water  is 
plenty,  turn  a  large  head  into  an  upper  corner  border 
at  the  supply  ditch.  When  it  is  filled,  open  a  passage 
into  the  next  border,  and  so  on  until  it  reaches  the 
waste  ditch  at  the  lower  end  of  the  field.  In  the  waste 
ditch  drill  an  inch  hole  down  to  the  hard-pan  and  put 
in  a  stick  of  giant  powder  which  will  blow  out  a  hole 
as  large  as  a  barrel.  A  more  simple  and  safer  method 
in  making  these  escapements  would  be  to  use  a  post- 
auger.  When  the  water,  black  with  alkali,  reaches 
the  waste  ditch  it  immediately  runs  through  these 
holes  and  is  lost  underneath  in  the  sand.  Keep  the 
water  running  as  long  as  it  is  discolored.  Some  of 
the  worst  land  in  the  valley  has  been  reclaimed  in  this 


44  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

way.  After  flooding,  good  judgment  must  be  used  in 
working  the  ground  before  it  bakes.  Two  floodings 
will  cure  the  most  obstinate  case  and  a  fortnight  is 
usually  required  to  thoroughly  flood  eighty  acres. 

Chemical  Antidotes. — When  the  quantity  of 
alkali  is  small  the  evil  effe(5ls  resulting  from  its  pres- 
ence may  be  mitigated  by  the  application  to  the  soil  of 
chemical  antidotes.  A  cheap  antidote  for  most  alka- 
line salts  is  lime.  In  some  cases  neutral  calcareous 
marl  will  answer  the  purpose.  When  the  alkali  con- 
sists of  carbonates  and  borates,  the  best  antidote  is 
gypsum  or  land  plaster.  These  materials  should  be 
sown  broadcast  over  the  surface  and  harrowed  in  to  a 
moderate  depth  prior  to  irrigating.  The  usual  amount 
of  gypsum  to  apply  is  from  400  to  500  pounds  to  the 
acre.  A  California  professor  once  became  so  inocu- 
lated with  the  gypsum  doctrine  that  he  applied  3,600 
pounds  to  the  acre  and  was  satisfied  that  the  process 
proved  to  be  altogether  too  expensive,  although  it  re- 
moved 75  per  cent,  of  the  alkali  by  using  the  gypsum 
in  connedlion  with  the  flooding  method.  Gypsum  is 
the  only  cure  for  the  disastrous  black  alkali  so  fatal  to 
plant  life. 

Eradication  by  Vegetable  Growth. — It  may 
often  happen  that  all  of  the  foregoing  recommendations 
will  prove  ineffedlive,  and  to  many  cultivators  they 
may  be  inaccessible.  The  most  simple  and  natural 
remedy  to  absorb  the  alkaliferous  elements  in  the  soil, 
as  has  been  found  from  the  writer's  own  experience, 
is  by  growing  them  out  with  certain  neutralizing  crops. 
If  these  do  not  entirely  eradicate  alkali  in  one  season 
they  should  be  continued  year  after  year  until  the 


THE  TREATMENT  OF  ALKALI.  45 

desired  result  is  obtained,  and  during  this  period  a 
rotation  of  the  specific  crops  may  be  resorted  to  if  so 
desired.  Sugar-beets  are  no  doubt  the  best  things  for 
this  purpose,  although  any  of  the  long-rooted  crops 
will  do  nearly  •as  well.  Potatoes  will  not  answer  at 
all.  Any  of  the  sugar-canes  are  beneficial,  but  the 
more  gross  feeders  or  the  leguminous  plants  are  better. 
Nothing  is  better  probably  than  alfalfa,  the  great  nitro- 
genous forage  plant  of  the  west,  or  its  cousin  esparcet, 
as  these  shade  the  ground,  and  their  deep  roots  absorb 
nearly  all  the  water  and  dissolved  salts,  while  on  the 
whole  they  reduce  evaporation  to  the  minimum. 
Other  recommended  crops  are  carrots,  turnips,  cab- 
bages, hops,  pea-vines,  and  sowed  corn.  In  orchard 
planting  such  trees  may  be  set  as  the  peach,  pear, 
quince,  apple,  and  prune  ;  and  small  fruits  and  the 
grape — but  for  the  latter  cuttings  must  not  be  used, 
and  the  topsoil  must  not  be  too  strong  with  alkali.  It 
is  said  that  the  olive  will  grow  in  the  black  alkali. 

Planting  Trees  in  Alkali  Ground. — We  are  fre- 
quently asked  if  there  is  any  way  to  plant  trees  on 
alkali  soil  so  that  they  will  live.  As  we  have  said 
before,  alkali  soil  packs  very  closely,  a  great  deal  more 
so  than  soil  not  impregnated  with  this  salt.  If  made 
wet  it  runs  together  like  soft  mortar.  If  a  hole  is  dug 
in  alkali  soil  the  walls  will  be  as  smooth  as  it  is  possible 
to  conceive  earth  to  be,  showing  the  disposition  of  this 
soil  to  pack  too  closely  for  young  tree  life,  while  the 
tree  planter  may  lose  his  labor,  not  even  saving  the 
holes  he  dug.  Our  experience  has  been,  after  digging 
the  hole  for  the  tree  the  usual  depth  and  the  usual 
way,  to  take  a  quarter  of  a  stick  of  giant  powder  and 


46  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

put  it  down  a  foot  deeper  in  the  bottom  of  the  tree 
hole  and  blow  up  the  packed  earth  by  exploding  the 
same;  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  put  a  layer  of  pure 
gypsum,  place  the  tree  roots  on  the  gypsum,  take  clean 
chaff  straw,  soil  and  gypsum,  about  eight  pounds  of 
the  latter  and  half  soil,  and  half  clean  straw,  and  fill 
up  the  hole  made  for  the  tree.  Do  not  in  this  case  use 
the  top-soil  to  fill  the  hole,  as  would  be  best  to  do  if 
there  were  no  alkali.  When  the  tree  is  planted,  take 
an  old  fruit  can,  put  it  in  the  fire  to  spring  it  apart, 
and  then  place  it  around  the  body  of  the  tree  above 
the  crown  roots  and  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the 
can  to  be  so  placed  that  the  top  may  come  even  with 
the  ground's  surface,  and  should  be  filled  with  gypsum. 
The  best  kind  of  pear  trees  to  plant  in  alkali  soil  are 
Beurre  Hardy,  Winter  Nelis,  and  Trout.  The  Bartlett 
does  not  do  so  well. 


CHAPTER  V. 
WATER-SUPPLY. 


Ml  N  CALCULATING  on  engaging  in  an  irrigation 
^1^  enterprise  of  any  kind  it  is  well  to  remember 
^^^1  that  we  must  first  catch  our  rabbit  before  we 
can  cook  the  stew.  No  one  should  attempt 
irrigation  without  first  having  determined  the  extent 
and  continuity  of  the  water-supply,  and  where  a  vast 
amount  of  money  will  be  needful  in  carrying  out  the 
enterprise,  as  in  the  construdlion  of  large  works,  the 
services  of  a  prac5lical  hydraulic  engineer  should  be 
secured  by  all  means,  and  his  report  should  be  rendered 
before  entering  upon  the  scheme.  To  get  at  the 
source  of  all  water-supply,  we  must  accept  the  well- 
recognized  scientific  facfl  that  the  waters  upon  the 
earth  and  the  clouds  in  the  air  are  forever  in  recipro- 
cal motion.  The  waters  are  lifted  and  ascend  into  the 
heavens,  the  clouds  are  drifted  away  over  the  land  and 
discharge  their  moisture  upon  the  land,  and  life  is 
supported  thereby.  The  amount  of  water  which  is 
taken'out  of  the  ocean  by  evaporation  each  year  is  very 
great.  About  thirty-five  or  thirty-six  inches  of  water 
rise  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  earth 
annually.  This  rainfall  on  the  entire  earth  would 
make  a  sheet  as  large  as  the  surface  of  the  earth  and 
about  three  feet  in  depth.  It  would  fill  Lake  Superior 
six  times  every  year. 

47 


48  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Evaporation  and  Run-Off. — When  the  rain  falls 
upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  a  part  is  evaporated  and 
carried  away  in  the  clouds,  a  part  sinks  into  the  soil 
to  be  slowly  evaporated,  and  a  very  large  part  is  carried 
away  by  vegetation  itself.  Plants  drink  water  and 
transpire  it  into  the  air  in  very  large  quantities.  That 
which  is  not  evaporated  from  the  earth's  surface  sooner 
or  later,  or  transpired  by  plants,  is  gathered  into  the 
rivers;  we  call  that  which  ultimately  flows  out  to  sea 
the  * '  run-off ' '  water;  and  that  which  is  evaporated  and 
which  drifts  away  in  the  air  we  call  *  *  fly-off  ' '  water. 
These  are  two  very  common,  simple  terms.  In  cal- 
culating the  requirements  of  modem  irrigation,  the 
best  authorities  hold  that  the  water  supply  for  a  given 
acre  should  be  sufficient  to  cover  it  twenty-one  inches 
deep  during  the  course  of  an  irrigating  season  of  lOO 
days.  Some  experts  place  the  maximum  as  high  as 
twenty-four  inches,  which  is  an  estimate  that  is 
certainly  liberal  enough. 

Other  conditions  being  equal,  the  drier  the  soil  the 
greater  its  absorptive  powers.  An  ordinary  rain  falling 
upon  a  dry,  cultivated  field  will  be  almost  entirely 
absorbed,  but  if  the  ground  is  already  charged  with 
moisture  nearly  all  the  rain  will  run  off  the  surface 
and  be  carried  away  through  the  ordinary  drainage 
channels.  The  per  cent,  of  the  total  rainfall  which 
joins  the  run-off  in  humid  climates  is  therefore  much 
greater  than  in  arid  regions  unless  other  conditions 
modify  the  results.  In  general,  therefore,  the  pro- 
portion of  the  total  rainfall  which  may  be  depended 
upon  for  filling  reservoirs  in  arid  and  semiarid  climates 
is  much  less  than  in  humid  sedlions.     The  rapidity  of 


WATER-SUPPLY.  49 

precipitation  is  an  important  fadlor  in  the  calculation 
of  the  relative  percentages  of  rainfall  and  run-off.  A 
mild  rain  continued  through  many  hours  will  give  but 
little  run-off,  while  the  same  amount  falling  in  one- 
fourth  or  an  eighth  the  time  will  give  a  greatly 
increased  run-off.  Unfortunately  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are  such  in  nearly  all  the  arid  portions  of  the 
world  that  what  little  rain  does  fall  comes  in  the  form 
of  hard,  driving  storms.  On  the  great  plains  of 
America  it  is  by  no  means  unusual  for  a  two-inch  rain 
to  fall  in  as  many  hours,  while  instances  are  of  yearly 
occurrence  in  which  four  inches  or  more  fall  within 
one  hour.  Under  such  conditions  almost  all  the  water 
runs  off,  except  in  the  most  sandy  places. 

The  most  important  of  all  the  conditions  affedling 
the  run-off  is  the  charadler  of  the  ground  upon  which 
the  water  falls.  A  loose,  porous  soil  will  absorb  a 
large  portion  of  a  rainfall,  as  will  also  a  sandy  surface, 
while  a  close,  compadl  soil  sheds  the  greater  part  of  it. 
An  area  composed  principally  of  a  close-grained  shale, 
and  soil  resulting  therefrom,  which  generally  has  a  coni- 
pa(5l  clay  subsoil,  has  inferior  absorptive  properties, 
while  one  composed  principally  of  sandstone  and  sand 
will  allow  but  little  water  to  run  away.  The  flood 
plains  of  rivers  frequently  have  little  power  of  absorp- 
tion. In  times  of  overflow  a  thin  layer  of  a  fine- 
grained sediment  is  deposited,  which  is  partially 
cemented  by  an  organic  mucilage  produced  by  the 
decomposition  of  mineral  matter  of  one  kind  or  another. 
This  material  is  almost  entirely  impervious  to  water, 
a  thin  layer  of  it  being  sufficient  to  prevent  downward 
percolation,  no  matter  how  sandy  the  soil  below  may 


50  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

be.  Illustrations  of  such  conditions  are  found  in 
many  places  along  the  valleys  of  the  Arkansas,  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  other  western  streams,  particularly  those 
which  rise  at  great  elevations  and  have  a  strong  velocity 
throughout  their  upper  courses  and  a  low  velocity 
farther  down  stream. 

The  Surface  Supply. — We  are  safe  in  claiming 
four  distinctive  sources  of  water-supply,  which  may 
in  turn  be  divided  into  two  classes.  These  are  the 
streams,  natural  lakes  and  reservoirs,  underflow  or 
phreatic  waters,  and  the  deep  subterranean  or  artesian 
bksins.  Of  these  the  most  pracfticable  and  available  are 
the  living  waters  of  the  natural  streams.  In  the  older 
irrigated  states,  where  the  legislators  have  framed  laws 
for  the  appropriation  of  running  waters,  the  control 
thereof  is  usually  placed  with  an  executive  officer, 
generally  called  the  State  Engineer,  who  virtually  has 
under  his  charge  and  supervision  the  control  of  the 
running  waters.  He  gauges  the  streams,  keeps  a 
record  of  their  flow,  and  doles  out  the  canal  rights  in 
accordance  with  the  statutes.  First  come,  first  served 
is  the  rule,  and  ditch  charters  which  are  granted  by 
him  are  issued  in  consecutive  numerical  order,  until 
the  full  carrying  capacity  of  the  stream  is  allotted, 
when  further  issuance  of  charters  ceases. 

In  the  most  successful  irrigating  watercourses  taken 
from  the  perennial  streams,  the  headworks  are  almost 
invarialy  located  well  up  on  the  river,  to  command 
sufficient  level  in  order,  if  possible,  to  tap  the.  stream 
where  the  water  is  clear  and  not  laden  with  silt.  By 
thus  locating  the  intake  it  is  usually  possible,  owing  to 
the  greater  slope  of  the  country,   to  reach  the  high 


.    WATER-SUPPLY.  51 

lands  or  watersheds  of  the  area  to  be  irrigated  with  the 
shortest  possible  diversion  line,  or  that  portion  of  the 
canal's  course  which  is  necessary  to  bring  the  line  to 
the  neighborhood  of  the  irrigable  lands.  This  is 
usually  expensive  and  unprodudlive  of  immediate 
benefit,  as  it  does  not  diredlly  irrigate  any  land.  The 
disadvantages  of  locating  the  canal  headworks  high  up 
on  the  streams  are  serious.  The  country  having  an 
excessive  fall  requires  rough  hillside  cuttings,  per- 
haps in  rock,  and  the  line  is,  moreover,  intersec5fed  by 
hillside  drainage,  the  crossing  of  which  entails  serious 
difficulties.  But  along  the  great  Rocky  Mountain 
foothills  this  objedlion  has  been  entirely  disregarded, 
and  the  English  or  High-line  canal  flows  through  the 
rock-ribbed  South  Platte  canon  a  distance  of  over 
thirty  miles  before  it  reaches  the  open  country,  where 
the  first  water  is  delivered  to  patrons.  When  taking 
out  a  ditch  in  a  flat  country,  as  is  often  the  case,  the 
work  is  much  more  simple  and  not  nearly  so  expensive. 
These  conditions  are  often  observed  in  the  prairie 
districts  at  great  distances  from  the  mountains. 

The  other  classification  of  surface  waters  is  that  of 
the  catchment  area  or  reservoir  order,  and  is  a  source 
of  supply  that  maybe  termed  artificial.  Holdings  of 
water  by  this  plan  may  be  obtained  without  resorting 
to  the  streams,  by  providing  dams  at  suitable  places 
for  catching  the  storm  or  run-off  freshets  coming  from 
rainfall  on  a  vast  watershed  lying  back  of  and  at  an 
elevation  above  the  reservoir  site  itself.  In  seledfing 
such  sites,  however,  two  or  three  cautions  must  be 
observed.  In  no  case  should  the  water  be  stored  in 
main  channels.     Suppose  there  is  a  ravine  running 


52  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

down,  with  side  ravines  cutting  into  it  and  with  many 
laterals,  and  with  a  tra<5l  of  five  or  ten  square  miles 
above,  which  a(5ls  as  a  catchment  area  for  waters  which 
run  down  in  flood  or  storm  times.  Now,  if  we 
attempt  to  catch  the  waters  in  the  main  channel,  the 
works  must  be  strong  enough  to  hold  and  control  all 
the  water  which  may  ever  flow  there.  The  great 
storms  w;ll  only  come  once  in  a  while,  say  five,  ten, 
twenty,  thirty  or  forty  years  apart,  but  when  they 
come  they  will  sweep  everything  before  them,  unless 
enormous  works  are  constru<5led  which  are  unnecessary 
to  hold  the  waters  of  ordinary  years.  In  taking  water 
from  streams  build  cheap  diverting  dams,  with  a  few 
sand-bags  or  something  of  that  sort,  to  keep  the  water 
back  and  turn  it  out  into  a  side  channel.  It  is  the 
result  of  experience  in  Mexico,  Spain,  and  India  that 
the  storm  waters,  when  stored,  must  be  impounded  in 
the  lateral  basins. 

Mud  and  Silt  in  Reservoirs. — There  is  another 
difficulty  about  the  storage  of  storm  waters  which  can 
be  avoided  by  the  plan  suggested.  Storm  waters  are 
always  more  or  less  impregnated  with  mud,  and  if 
these  roily  waters  are  stored  in  the  main  channels  the 
reservoirs  will  soon  fill  up  and  destroy  the  catchment 
by  the  mud  and  silt,  brought  down  from  above,  accu- 
mulating in  the  bed  ;  but  if  the  water  is  diverted  into 
a  lateral  or  supply  channel,  the  flow  can  be  checked, 
by  methods  which  are  well  known,  so  as  to  deposit 
the  mud  and  silt  largely,  and  carry  the  purer  waters 
around  into  the  reservoir.  These  conditions  must  be 
carefully  observed  if  success  is  to  be  attained  in  the 
storage  of  storm  waters.     Experience  shows  that  it  is 


WAYER-SUPl>tY.  53 

more  economic,  and  that  a  greater  area  of  the  world  is 
irrigated  by  the  storage  of  storm  waters  than  is  irri- 
gated by  well  waters.  Storm  waters  are  very  rich, 
carrying  with  them  many  elements  of  fertilization,  and 
are  very  valuable. 

Underflow,  Phreatic  and  Artesian.— These  are 
all  definitions  of  subterranean  waters.  Underflow 
waters  may  consist  of  either  the  phreatic — those  waters 
underneath  that  have  come  from  the  surface — or  the 
artesian,  which  are  almost  invariably  deep- founded, 
and  owe  their  depth  to  the  earth's  stratifications, 
through  which  they  have  percolated  from  higher 
sources,  either  open  or  hidden,  and  generally  in  either 
case  at  great  distances  from  the  artesian  channel  proper. 
These  waters  are  necessarily  not  nearly  so  available  as 
the  more  readily  attained  surface  supplies,  and  are  to 
be  developed  only  in  urgent  cases  and  in  the  places 
where  a  surface  supply  is  not  accessible.  Underflow 
waters  are  sometimes  brought  to  the  surface  by  the 
gravity  process.  This  is  possible  in  the  sandy  beds  of 
many  western  streams  a  greater  portion  of  the  year. 
Phreatic  waters  usually  abound  within  loo  feet  of  the 
surface  and  are  raised  chiefly  by  pumps,  while  the  deep 
artesians  have  an  invisible  power,  which  forces  the 
water  to  the  top  in  ever-flowing  streams.  I^ater  chap- 
ters in  this  work  will  bear  upon  these  subterranean 
waters  more  fully. 

Tunneling  for  Water. — In  California  where  fruit 
crops  form  the  main  agricultural  pursuits,  the  rather 
expensive  plan  of  tunneling  the  high  mountains  for 
water  supply  has  been  successfully  carried  out  in  many 
places.     The  work  has  been  done  mostly  by  organized 


54  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

companies  with  plenty  of  capital,  the  obje(5l  being  to 
make  salable  the  adjacent  tradls  of  foothill  lands,  which 
for  several  reasons  are  best  adapted  to  fruit  culture. 
These  tunnels  are  opened  by  means  of  diamond  drills 
operated  with  the  power  of  compressed  air  supplied  by 
an  air-pump,  at  the  opening  of  the  drift.  As  a  rule 
the  tunnels  are  less  than  looo  feet  in  length,  and  are 
run  in  vsuch  way  as  to  tap  the  various  shelving  strati- 
fications of  formation,  which  carry  more  or  less  quanti- 
ties of  pure  water  seeking  its  level  from  the  higher 
mountains.  The  plan  is  pra(5licable  in  supplying  a 
satisfactory  head  of  water  to  fill  an  ordinary  ditch,  but 
before  such  a  heavy  undertaking  is  commenced  the  ser- 
vices of  a  geologist  or  hydraulic  engineer  should  be 
called  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  mountain's  inte- 
rior, especially  as  to  the  amount  of  water  it  may  con- 
tain. There  is  no  use  of  going  to  the  expense  of  run- 
ning an  adit  until  the  hidden  water  supply  is  fairly  well 
approximated.  All  mountains  do  not  contain  water, 
and  this  fa<5l  is  very  essential  in  undertaking  such  an 
enterprise  as  described. 

The  Newsom  System. — A  simple  gravity  system 
for  tapping  the  underflow  of  hillsides  or  dry  streams 
with  considerable  pitch  has  been  invented  and  patented 
by  Prof.  Eli  Newsom,  and  a  sample  plant  is  in  success- 
ful operation  near  Parker,  Colorado,  twenty  miles  south 
of  Denver.  This  system  gives  a  constant  flow  of  water, 
much  as  described  under  the  foregoing  caption  on  tun- 
neling, but  the  plan  is  necessarily  much  cheaper,  and 
with  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  it  ought  to  be  able  to 
irrigate  from  twenty  to  forty  acres  quite  readily.  Pro- 
fessor Newsom 's  device  consists  of  an  artificial  reser- 


WATER-SUPPLY. 


55 


voir  or  fountainhead  from  which  radiate  a  number  of 
colle<5ling  tubes.  From  the  fountainhead  outward 
through  a  trench  or  tunnel  extends  a  discharge  pipe  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground  below  the  normal  water-level. 
This  pipe  has  an  enlarged  head  with  a  strainer,  and  the 
whole  idea  is  quite  clearly  elucidated  in  Fig.  6,  shown 


FIG.    6 — THE    NEWSOM    SYSTEM    OF   WATER-SUPPLY. 

herewith.  By  this  plan  underground  waters  gathered 
in  a  well  within  reasonable  distance  of  the  surface  and 
situated  higher  than  the  land  to  be  irrigated  can  be 
easily  diverted  and  applied  in  a  never-failing  supply. 
In  winter  the  water  can  be  diverted  through  a  waste 
way  or  can  be  reservoired  wherever  desired. 

Water  Witchery. — Ever  since  the  writer  can 
remember  he  has  been  conversant  with  the  methods  of 
certain  men  who  claim  to  possess  the  occult  power  of 


56  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

locating  a  stratum  or  underflow  of  water  by  means  of  a 
forked  stick,  held  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  expec5led  to 
dip  at  a  point  over  the  underlying  waters  as  the 
operator  passes  along  on  the  surface.  This  is  called 
*'  water  witchery,"  and  is  at  best  a  very  problematical 
pradlice,  scarcely  worth  the  time  that  one  might  devote 
to  it,  and  certainly  not  always  worth  the  fees  that  may 
be  charged.  The  way  to  put  a  water  locator  of  this 
sort  to  a  practical  test  is  to  place  stakes  at  the  points 
where  his  forked  willow  may  show  the  downward  ten- 
dency, indicative,  as  he  will  say,  of  the  water  under- 
neath. L,et  several  stakes  be  driven  at  different  points. 
Then  blindfold  the  water  prospector,  lead  him  around 
in  a  circle  several  times,  and  if  his  magic  wand  will 
repeat  the  dipping  a<5lions  as  before,  and  the  two  sets 
of  stakes  agree,  some  dependence  may  then  be  placed 
in  the  operation,  but  the  test  will  be  more  apt  to  fail 
and  the  deception  will  at  once  be  apparent. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
CANAL  CONSTRUCTION. 


WATER  is  king,  and  the  most  important  adjunc5l 
._  to  the  greater  requirements  of  irrigation  is  a 
^^1  good  canal  system.  The  gravity  supply  of 
water  is  by  all  odds  the  best  that  can  be 
employed,  and  the  farmer  who  has  a  good  ditch  in  per- 
fedl  working  order  may  consider  that  he  has  a  fortune 
lying  at  his  threshold.  In  laying  out  a  system  of 
ditches  for  a  farm,  use  care  and  time.  Think  it  over 
well,  and  it  may  be  economy  to  employ  a  hydraulic 
engineer  to  run  levels  and  determine  grades.  No  large 
canal  system  should  be  undertaken  without  consulting 
an  expert  engineer.  Each  farm  to  a  certain  extent 
requires  a  ditch  system  adapted  to  its  peculiar  topog- 
raphy, soil,  and  crops.  See  to  it  that  the  water  can 
get  off  the  land  as  well  as  on  it.  Remember  at  all  times 
that  drainage  is  quite  as  necessary  to  successful  irriga- 
tion as  the  water-supply  itself.  The  matter  of  grade 
for  a  ditch  is  one  which  depends  so  much  upon  circum- 
stances as  almost  to  preclude  rules.  It  is  safe,  how- 
ever, to  make  the  grades  as  light  as  possible  to  avoid 
' '  silting  up  "  or  settling.  Cutting  may  be  called  per- 
petual motion,  for  if  once  begun  it  seems  never  to  stop. 
The  ditch  gradually  gets  lower  and  lower  until  the 
water  cannot  be  got  out  of  it  at  all,  and  it  must  either 
be  abandoned  or  have  falls  built  in  it  to  keep  the  flow 

57 


58  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

near  the  surface.  As  far  as  possible  keep  the  grade 
uniform,  as  changing  the  grade  tends  to  cause  both 
cutting  and  silting.  A  ditch  for  irrigation  on  a  farm 
should  always  be  much  larger  than  the  a<5lual  demands 
require.  In  Spain  their  hundreds  of  years'  experience 
has  taught  them  to  make  their  ditches  very  large. 
They  could  thus  irrigate  their  lands  quickly  and  be 
done  with  it.  The  ditches  were  far  less  likely  to  break 
and  could  be  easily  crossed  by  wagons  or  farm  imple- 
ments. During  sudden  showers  they  could  carry  oif 
the  drainage  water  from  immediately  above  them  and 
thus  avoid  many  a  washout. 

Laying  Out.— The  laying  out  of  ditches  is  the 
province  of  the  engineer  or  surveyor,  although  the 
more  intelligent  farmers  may  do  much  of  their  own 
work  and  thus  save  considerable  expense.  Something 
of  a  knowledge  of  leveling  must  be  had  in  order  to  do 
the  work,  but  sufficient  may  soon  be  acquired  to  per- 
mit of  much  home  work  being  done.  Every  man  who 
has  much  ditch  building  to  do  should  have  a  cheap 
grade  level  and  target,  which  should  not  exceed  $25  in 
cost,  while  a  very  good  outfit  can  be  bought  for  $12. 
The  writer  has  used  the  Jackson  very  satisfad:orily. 
This  instrument  is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  while  the  target 
or  flag  is  given  in  Fig.  8. 

If  but  little  work  is  to  be  done  a  carpenter's  com- 
mon spirit-level  fastened  onto  a  sixteen-foot  strip  of 
board  will  answer  very  well.  Instru(5lions  for  running 
grades  are  sent  with  each  instrument.  The  first  opera- 
tion is  to  begin  at  the  selected  head  and  take  a  series 
of  long  sight  levels  down  the  course  of  the  river  to 
ascertain  its  approximate  fall.     These  levels  should  be 


CANAL  CONSTRUCTION. 


59 


taken  with  two  rods  to  save  time,  the  locator  making 
a  sketch  and  estimating  roughly  his  distance  at  the 
same  time.  Having  gone  down  the  river  far  enough 
to  satisfy  himself  as  to  its  fall,  he  turns  at  right  angles 
as  nearly  as  may  be  and  continues  to  level  hillward 
across  the  valley  until  he  records  the  elevation  assumed 
as  the  head  of  the  works.     He  will  now  be  able  to  fix 


FIG.    7 — THE   JACKSON    LEVEL. 


the  location  of  any  chosen  grade  upon  the  line  of  his 
cross  levels  according  to  his  estimated  distance,  and  is 
therefore  also  in  a  position  to  estimate  approximately 
the  rate  of  his  grade.  He  knows  from  his  sketch  and 
estimated  distance  what  area  of  the  valley  is  behind  him 
on  the  up-stream  side  bounded  by  the  river,  by  the 
canal,  and  by  the  line  of  his  cross  levels. 

The  next  operation  is  to  turn  again  at  right  angle 
and  continue  leveling  down  the  valley  more  or  less  upon 


6o  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  line  of  the  canal,  still  approximating  the  distance 
and  going  up  or  down  if  he  thinks  it  worth  while  or 
necessary  to  re<5lif y  position  from  time  to  time, 
according  to  the  distance  estimated  and  the 
grade  assumed.  Having  gone  as  far  as  it  is 
intended  to  build  the  canal,  he  should  turn  at 
right  angles  across  the  valley  back  to  the  river 
and  take  his  last  line  of  levels.  Throughout 
the  operations  described,  as  many  good  bench 
marks  as  possible  should  be  established  for 
future  reference.  The  taking  of  these  levels 
being  done,  he  should  finish  his  track  survey 
j_.  of  the  river-bank  up  the  stream  to  the  point  at 
3  which  his  first  line  of  cross  levels  originated. 
^^  Having  established  the  objedlive  point  in  this 
way,  the  matter  of  running  the  transit  to  the 
target  and  placing  the  grade  stakes  is  very 
simple,  and  any  schoolboy  ought  to  be  able  to 
locate  the  grade  line  corredlly. 

In  case  a  surveyor  is  not  engaged  and  the 
spirit-level  is  to  be  employed  the  procedure  is 
very  simple.  Take  a  pine  plank  two  by  six 
I  inches  by  sixteen  and  a  half  feet,  surfaced  on 
all  sides,  the  edges  of  which  should  be  reduced 
to  a  true,  straight  edge.  Exa(5lly  midway  of 
the  stick,  on  one  edge,  fasten  a  carpenter's 
spirit-level  with  such  accuracy  that  when  the 
plank  is  set  on  edge  on  a  level  surface  the  in- 


=1 

FIG.  8. 


TARGET.  .,,.,.  ^  1  ATA        1 

strument  will  mdicate  a  level.  To  locate  a 
ditch  with  a  fall  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  the  rod, 
attach  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  plank,  on  the  opposite 
edge  to  the  level,  a  block  of  wood  one-fourth  of  an  inch 


CANAL   CONSTRUCTION.  6 1 

thick.  Beginning  at  the  highest  point  on  the  land  to 
which  the  water  is  to  be  condu(5led,  drive  a  stake  so  that 
its  top  will  be  six  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
On  the  top  of  this  stake  place  the  end  of  the  straight- 
edge to  which  the  quarter-inch  block  is  fastened,  the 
block  resting  on  the  stake.  Drive  the  next  stake  one  rod 
from  the  first  stake,  toward  the  source  of  the  stream, 
at  such  a  point  that  the  second  stake  is  driven  so  as  to 
project  six  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
With  the  straight-edge  resting  on  both  stakes  the 
spirit  will  thus  indicate  a  true  level.  Obviously  a 
ditch  dug  between  these  two  stakes,  at  a  uniform 
depth  below  the  top  of  each  stake,  will  be  one- fourth 
of  an  inch  deeper  at  the  lower  end.  Proceed  thus  until 
the  top  of  the  last  stake  is  six  inches  above  the  surface 
of  the  water  in  the  stream.  Be  careful  not  to  reverse 
ends  of  the  straight-edge  level,  but  keep  the  end  to 
which  the  block  is  fastened  down-stream.  The  line 
indicated  by  the  stakes  is  the  ditch  line,  and  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ditch  should  be  at  a  uniform  distance  below 
the  top  of  each  stake.  These  instrucftions  are  only 
available  in  small  work,  such  as  an  ordinary  farmer 
might  require  in  an  individual  way,  and  cannot  apply 
to  the  work  of  excavating  a  great  canal,  which  should 
be  surveyed  in  the  scientific  manner. 

Ditching  Methods. — With  regard  to  excavation 
and  costs,  the  smaller  ditches  may  be  constru(5led  by 
hand  shoveling,  by  plowing,  and  by  scraping,  or  by 
plowing  with  a  large  double-mold-board  plow  ;  the 
larger  ditches  by  plowing  and  scraping,  or  by  grading 
or  ditching  machines.  Hand-work  is  of  course  most 
expensive,  but  it  will  be  necessary  in  some  places. 


62  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Some  plowed  ditches  are  the  cheapest,  but  they  are 
only  temporary,  and  in  the  end  more  expensive. 
Scrapers  will  cover  the  greatest  range  of  work  and  will 
fairly  represent  the  average  cost.  The  modern  thing 
in  scrapers  is  the  wheeled  affair.  Work  done  with 
ditching  machines  is  very  satisfactory  and  far  cheaper 
than  any  other  work.  Not  every  farmer  can  afford  to 
buy  a  machine  to  do  his  own  work  alone,  but  when 
farmers  become  associated  in  the  putting  down  of  wells 
and  the  construdlion  of  reservoirs  and  ditches,  then  it 
will  pay  to  buy  machines,  for  on  a  large  piece  of  work 
they  will  soon  pay  their  cost. 

Cost  of  Construction. — Classifying  irrigating 
canals  and  ditches  according  to  their  widths,  it  has 
been  found  that  for  those  averaging  less  than  five 
feet  in  width  the  expense  of  constru(5lion,  includ- 
ing head  works,  flumes,  etc.,  is  $481  a  mile  ;  for  those 
five  feet  in  width  and  under  ten  feet,  $1,628  a  mile, 
and  for  those  ten  feet  or  more  in  width  $5,603  a  mile. 
The  greater  number  of  the  irrigating  systems  of  the 
country  have  been  construdled  under  such  conditions 
that  the  owners  cannot  give  even  an  approximate  esti- 
mate as  to  what  they  really  cost.  Many  of  them  have 
been  built  by  the  efforts  of  a  few  farmers  a(5ling  origi- 
nally in  partnership,  and  have  been  enlarged  from 
year  to  year  as  more  land  was  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion and  population  increased.  Farmers,  as  a  rule,  do 
not  keep  account  of  the  amount  of  labor  or  money 
expended  on  such  works,  and  in  cases  where  they  own 
the  irrigating  ditches  they  do  not  take  into  considera- 
tion the  labor  expended  upon  the  ditches  at  times  when 
the  farm  work  is  not  pressing.  When  contra<5lors  figure 


CANAL   CONSTRUCTION. 


63 


on  the  cost  of  building  a  canal  exclusive  of  the  rock 
work  they  usually  calculate  the  expense  of  excavating 
at  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  a  cubic  yard  of  earth 
removed.  The  a<5lual  cost  of  this  work  has  of  later 
years  been  reduced,  by  means  of  the  big  grading  ma- 
chines, to  the  minimum  of  three  or  four  cents  a  cubic 
yard.  In  arriving  at  the  cost  of  canal  construdlion  in 
various  parts  of  the  west  the  government  officials  have 
compiled  the  following  tabulated  computation  : 

average;  cost  per  mii,e  of  constructing  irrigating 

CANAI.S  and  ditches 


STATES 
AND    TERRITORIES 

Under  5  feet 
in  zvidth 

5  to  10  feet  in 
width 

10  feet  and  over 
in   width 

General  average  .   .   . 

Arizona  

California . 

Colorado 

Idaho  

Montana 

Nevada 

New  Mexico 

$481 

471 
885 
380 
205 
325 
200 
310 
260 
493 
285 

■363' 

$1,628 

1,674 

5,957 

1,131 

810 

800 

1,150 

581 

1,060 

1,025 

1,236 

837 

447 

$5,603 

5,274 
15,511 
5,258 
1,320 
2,300 

6,666 
1,300 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

Sub-humid  region  .... 

3,072 
2,571 
3,884 
1,884 

Since  the  foregoing  estimates  were  made  up  and 
following  the  publication  of  this  book  in  1895,  the 
cost  of  ditch  work  has  decreased  very  materially,  so 
that  future  estimates  must  be  on  a  much  lower  scale. 
For  instance,  on  ordinary  ditches  the  large-sized  drag- 
scrapers  will  deliver  one-sixth  of  a  cubic  yard  in  one 
load.  With  good  teams  and  proper  management,  one 
yard  every  six  minutes,  or  ninety  yards  a  day,  can  be 
removed.     In  scraper  work  the  cost  of  excavating 


64  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

ninety  cubic  yards  would  be  $4. 1 2,  or  4.6  cents  a  cubic 
yard.  In  handling  sod  four-horse  plows  are  necessary 
to  break  the  surface.  This  material  is  very  difficult  to 
handle,  and  the  increased  expense  and  small  output 
brings  the  cost  up  to  five  or  more  cents  a  cubic  yard. 
In  heavy  gumbo  or  cemented  gravel,  if  plowable  at  all, 
the  cost  of  scraper  work  is  generally  increased  to  as 
high  as  eight  or  even  ten  cents  a  cubic  yard.  As  before 
stated,  in  making  canals  the  recently  perfec5led  graders 
are  more  desirable  than  scrapers.  These  machines 
consist  of  a  plow  which  breaks  up  the  surface,  raises 
the  soil  and  throws  it  on  an  elevator,  which  delivers  it 
at  the  side  of  the  ditch.  The  great  amount  of  turn- 
ing is  avoided  and  the  work  is  more  rapidly  done. 
Dry  sand  is  the  most  difficult  material  in  operating 
thCvSe  graders,  for,  lacking  adhesion,  it  does  not  rise 
readily  upon  the  mold-board  of  the  plow  and  fall  upon 
the  carrier.  Experts,  however,  handle  large  quantities 
in  a  day,  and  find  the  cost  considerably  less  than 
removing  the  same  amount  with  scrapers.  Fine  dis- 
integrated rock  is  equally  as  difficult  to  handle  as  sand. 
Wet  sand  is  more  readily  removed,  as  it  holds  together 
better.  These  graders  do  good  work  in  sod.  In  moist 
clay  or  loam  additional  horse-power  is  necessary. 
The  same  is  true  in  adobe  and  gravel  soils,  but  as  the 
machines  are  strong  enough  to  stand  a  strain  of  twenty- 
four  horses,  work  can  be  done  which  is  impossible  un- 
der any  other  method. 

The  foregoing  estimates  cover  ditches  ranging  from 
2  feet  wide  at  bottom,  8  feet  at  top,  and  2  feet  deep,  to 
16  feet  wide  at  bottom,  32  feet  at  top,  and  4^  feet 
deep.     I^arger  ditches  can  be  built  with  the  graders  at 


CANAL   CONSTRUCTION.  65 

slightly  increased  cost,  for  they  can  then  be  used  as 
wagon  loaders,  and  the  earth  hauled  to  any  devsired 
point.  A  large  ditch  i8  feet  wide  at  bottom,  30  feet 
at  top,  4  feet  in  depth,  with  a  four-foot  additional  em- 
bankment, with  a  capacity  of  6  feet  in  depth,  36  feet 
at  surface,  and  18  feet  at  bottom,  having  a  cross-sec- 
tion of  162  square  feet,  with  a  current  of  two  miles  an 
•hour,  would,  in  twenty-four  hours  deliver  sufficient 
water  to  cover  940  acres  i  foot  deep.  A  mile  of  such 
a  ditch  could  be  built  by  three  men  with  six  teams  in 
eighteen  days  at  a  cost  of  about  $400.  By  ordinary 
methods  such  a  ditch  would  cost  several  times  this 
amount.  A  ditch  8  feet  at  bottom,  20  feet  at  top,  and 
3  feet  deep  would  cost  approximately  $200  a  mile.  A 
lateral  4  feet  at  bottom,  12  feet  at  top,  and  2^  feet 
deep,  carrying  3^  feet  in  depth  of  water,  can  be  built 
at  from  $75  to  $100  a  mile,  and  a  small  ditch  2  feet  on 
bottom,  8  feet  at  top,  and  2  feet  deep,  can  be  con- 
stru(5led  with  these  graders  for  about  $50  a  mile. 
These  figures  have  been  calculated  somewhat  lower  by 
the  manufacturers  of  ditching  machines,  but  we  be- 
lieve the  estimates  made  herein  are  more  conservatively 
correal  than  those  of  the  makers. 

Form  and  Capacity. — To  get  the  greatest  possi- 
ble velocity  the  ditch  should  be  in  the  form  of  half  a 
pipe  or  a  pipe  split  in  half  lengthwise.  This  would  re- 
quire the  width  of  the  ditch  at  the  top  to  be  exactly 
twice  its  depth  in  the  center.  In  other  words,  it  would 
be  as  wide  at  the  top  as  the  length  of  the  diameter  of 
the  pipe,  and  one-half  diameter  deep  from  the  center 
to  any  point  of  the  sides  or  bottom.  A  ditch  of  this 
form   offers  less  fri<5lion  surface  in  proportion  to  its 


66  IRRIGATION   INARMING. 

cross-se<5lional  area  than  any  other  form,  and  also 
keeps  the  depth  of  the  water  in  the  ditch  nearly  half 
its  width.  The  diameter  of  a  pipe  we  will  say  is  4 
feet.  Its  circumference  would  be,  therefore,  3. 14 16 
multiplied  by  4,  equal  to  12.5664  feet;  when  it  is 
halved  lengthwise  half  the  circumference  would  equal 
6.2832  feet. 

To  get  the  greatest  velocity  and  quantity  of  water 
to  flow  in  a  recftangular  canal  it  should  be  of  such  form 
as  to  cause  the  water  in  it  to  flow  exactly  one-half  as 
deep  as  wide,  because  the  velocity  of  flow  in  such  a 
canal  is  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the  hydraulic 
mean  depth,  and  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  is  at  its 
maximum  when  the  breadth  of  the  water  is  just  twice 
its  depth.  Fanning  says  that  the  variation  of  velocity, 
with  varying  depth,  is  nearly  as  the  variation  of  the 
square  root  of  the  hydraulic  mean  depth. 

Grades  and  Slopes. — The  grade  is  one  of  the 
important  things  to  be  considered  in  canal  construc5lion. 
Ditches  running  from  twenty  to  over  one  hundred  miles 
have  widths  from  twenty  to  eighty  feet,  some  being 
built  with  and  some  without  bermes — the  grades  rang- 
ing from  one  foot  to  seven  feet  a  mile.  The  steeper 
grades  are  not  common  and  are  for  short  distances  only. 
The  average  grades  for  main  ditches,  carrying  from  two 
to  six  feet  of  water,  are  from  one  and  one-half  to  two 
and  three-fourths  feet  a  mile.  Such  low  grades  will 
answer  only  for  the  larger  ditches  carrying  large 
volumes  of  water,  and  where  the  ratio  of  volume  to 
resistance  or  fridlion  on  the  sides  is  large.  In  smaller 
distributing  ditches,  where  the  volume  is  smaller  and 
the  resistance  proportionately  much  greater,  a  steeper 


CANAL   CONSTRUCTION. 


67 


grade  must  be  allowed.  The  location  of  the  well  or 
reservoir  on  or  near  the  highest  point  fixes  the  point 
of  radiation  of  the  ditches,  their  lines  being  located 
according  to  the  grades  secured  and  the  lay  of  the  land 
to  be  served.     The  aim  will  always  be  to  keep  the 


FIG  9 — DROP  AND    REDUCTION   BOX. 


water  up  as  high  as  possible,  for  it  is  useless  to  sacri- 
fice grade  or  make  a  ditch  run  at  a  greater  grade  than 
is  necessary.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  let  the  water 
down,  but  a  difficult  thing  to  raise  it. 

A  method  for  dropping  the  grade  of  a  ditch  when 
the  pitch  becomes  too  great  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.     This 


68  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

is  a  drop  box  for  the  fall  and  is  often  made  a  reduction 
box  as  well.  It  is  useful  in  places  where  the  water- 
supply  is  lessened  by  serving  customers  farther  up  the 
line,  or  when  the  volume  of  water  becomes  less  from 
any  other  cause.  Another  plan  is  the  use  of  the 
inclined  flume.  By  keeping  the  water  grades  up,  a 
broader  area  is  kept  within  the  range  of  service. 
Grades  of  from  two  to  five  feet  a  mile  will  be  ample  to 
secure  good  delivery  from  the  smaller  main  ditches, 
while  the  laterals  will  require  steeper  grades,  which  in 
many  cases  may  be  confined  to  the  approximate  level 
of  the  field,  except  on  hillsides  or  quite  abrupt  slopes, 
in  which  case  the  grades  will  be  carried  around  the 
slope  as  contours. 

As  to  side  slopes,  the  usual  ratio  is  one  to  one  in 
cuts  of  common  material,  with  sometimes  one-half  to 
one  in  harder  material  and  one-fourth  to  one  in  rock. 
For  outside  slopes  of  embankments  the  usual  ratio  is 
one  and  one-half  to  one,  and  for  inside  slopes  of  banks 
usually  two  to  one,  except  in  crossing  ravines  with  the 
bank,  when  the  inner  slope  may  be  two  and  one-half  or 
three  to  one,  owing  to  the  depth  of  bank  below  the 
grade  line.  In  a  flat  country  where  the  bottom  of  the 
canal  is  kept  as  near  the  natural  surface  as  possible, 
•  and  embankments  are  built  on  both  sides,  the  side 
slopes  may  be  as  flat  as  three  to  one  from  the  bottom 
of  the  cut  to  the  bank  without  any  berme.  Many  fair- 
sized  canals  even  up  to  twelve  or  sixteen  feet  wide,  and 
carrying  three  or  four  feet  of  water,  have  been  made 
without  any  berme  and  seem  to  have  stood  well. 

Curves  and  Friction. — The  more  earth  surface 
and  the  greater  number  of  bends  the  water  comes  in 


70  IRRIGATION   INARMING. 

contadl  with  in  flowing  in  a  ditch,  the  greater  the  fric- 
tion will  be  and  the  less  the  velocity  and  quantity  of 
water.  Therefore  to  obtain  the  greatest  velocity  and 
quantity  of  water  the  ditch  should  be  as  straight  as 
possible.  If  bends  are  necessary  they  should  not  be 
abrupt,  but  as  gradual  as  possible.  A  very  good  exam- 
ple of  an  easy  curve  is  shown  in  Fig.  lo. 

For  a  steady  flow  the  grade  should  be  the  same  the 
entire  length  of  the  ditch,  or  as  nearly  so  as  circum- 
stances will  permit.  The  sides  and  bottom  should  be 
regular  and  smooth,  and  clear  of  stones,  weeds,  etc. 
The  weak  spot  in  every  canal  is  most  apt  to  be  found 
at  the  curves  and  angles,  and  these  must  be  prote<5led. 
Where,  as  is  the  case  in  some  sedlions,  there  is  plenty 
of  stone,  the  water-line  at  the  curves  may  be  partially 
protedled  by  riprapping,  but  this  involves  a  large 
amount  of  labor.  Where  there  are  no  stones  other 
means  must  be  used.  Willows  are  oftentimes  planted 
to  give  bank  protection .  Where  gravel  may  be  had  a 
shore  line  may  be  covered  with  it,  thus  forming  a 
natural  water-break.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  best  to 
constru(5l  a  breakwater  of  plank  sharpened  and  driven 
into  the  bank,  or  laid  to  posts  set  in  the  bank.  The 
steeper  the  bank  the  greater,  of  course,  will  be  the  dis- 
placement of  the  earth  by  water's  adlion.  In  Fig.  ii 
is  seen  a  canal  on  the  hillside. 

Headgates. — The  best  mechanical  effort  in  build- 
ing a  canal  should  be  expended  on  the  headgate.  This 
should  be  located  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the 
intake  at  the  river  with  a  fore  bay  of  only  moderate 
grade  intervening.  The  old-fashioned  headgates  were 
built  of  lumber  and  were  not  usually  sufficient  to  with- 


CANAL  CONSTRUCTION. 


71 


stand  the  tearing  force  of  freshets  in  the  stream.  Iron 
gates  came  later  and  were  fairly  successful  in  with- 
standing the  attacks  of  storms,  but  they  often  caused 
more  serious  damage  to  the  lower  bank  of  the  fore  bay 


FIG.  II — CANAL   ON  A   HILLSIDE. 


and  oftentimes  led  to  its  entire  destrudlion.  The  gate 
should  be  placed  at  a  point  convenient  to  discharge 
water  back  to  the  river  through  the  waste  and  sand 
gates.  The  use  of  piling  is  necessary  in  soft  ground, 
although  some  builders  continue  to  put  in  mudsills  and 
depend  upon  stone  anchorage  to  keep  the  stru6ture  in 
place.     The  writer  would  advise  wings  to  be  put  in  on 


72  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

each  side  of  the  gates,  where  there  is  no  rock  in  place, 
and  these  wings  should  extend  in  either  direcftion  and 
especially  on  the  lower  side,  if  the  surface  of  the  land 
be  flat  for  a  distance  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet. 

We  have  often  seen  headworks  left  standing  alone 
in  the  middle  of  a  torrent  of  water  after  a  heavy  storm, 
and  have  noted  that  the  damage  of  the  washout  might 
have  been  averted  had  wings  of  piling  or  masonry  been 
put  in.  The  superstrudlure  should  be  built  of  heavy 
timber  and  provided  with  a  windlass.  It  is  a  good 
plan  for  large  canals  to  have  the  gates  arranged  in 
stalls,  each  working  independent  of  the  other.  A  gate 
of  modern  constru<5lion  is  shown  in  Fig.  12,  the  lower 
end  in  view  with  water  passing  through.  It  fortu- 
nately is  anchored  in  rock  walls  and  is  not  supposed 
to  wash  out,  nor  does  it  need  the  protedlion  of  wing 
pilings. 

In  Scott's  Bluff  county,  Nebraska,  the  Nine  Mile 
canal  has  its  headgate  900  feet  below  the  intake,  which 
is  at  a  seepage  basin  formed  by  damming  up  a  channel 
in  a  river  at  the  side  of  an  island.  The  dam  is  located 
above  the  mouth  of  the  canal,  while  the  channel  or 
basin  is  left  open  with  the  idea  that  the  backwater 
from  the  river  will  flow  in  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
island,  and  in  this  way  there  will  be  but  little  sand  with 
which  to  contend.  The  plan  has  many  features  to 
recommend  it,  but  it  could  be  adopted  only  in  the 
situations  favorably  located  as  to  the  island  and  with  a 
moderate  fall  of  the  stream  at  the  desired  point. 

The  Drop-Head. — The  later  pra(5lice  with  many 
of  the  best  engineers  in  locating  the  intake  of  canals 
is  to  provide  the  drop-head  instead  of  the  old-fashioned 


CANAL   CONSTRUCTION. 


73 


diversion  dam.  This  system  was  worked  out  on  the 
theory  that  it  is  useless  to  undertake  the  expense  of 
raising  water  above  its  natural  level  in  order  to  divert 
it  from  the  bed  of  the  stream,  for  it  is  more  simple  to 


FIG.   12 — HEADGATE    OF   A    CANAL 


have  it  flow  out  by  its  own  gravity  and  volition.  To 
do  this  a  gallery  is  opened  alongside  and  parallel  with 
the  stream,  and  the  water  is  thus  allowed  to  flow  over 
and  into  it.  This  gallery  is  the  real  intake  of  the  canal 
and  is  built  of  heavy  planking  with  double  floor,  laid 
on  mudsills  set  in  concrete,  so  as  to  remain  firm  and 
fast.  The  river  side  of  the  gallery  is  faced  with  an 
apron,  over  which  the  water  flows  into  the  gallery,  the 
floor  of  which  is  a  foot  or  so  lower  than  the  bed  of  the 


74 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


stream.     The   head  gate   is  located  a   short   distance 
lower  down  the  canal,  as  in  the  case  of  bulkheads. 


FIG.   13 — TOP   SECTIONAL  VIEW   OF   LAND  S    SAND   GATE. 


m 


FIG.  14 — SIDE  VIEW  OF  SAND   GATE 

I    „    H    ..    I 


1 


FIG.  15 — FRONT   VIEW   OF   SAND    GATE. 

Sand  Gates. — Quite  as  essential  as  the  main  gate 
itself  is  the  sand  gate  of  a  canal,  by  means  of  which 
silt,  sand  or  detritus  may  be  caught  and  drawn   off 


CANAl.  CONS'TRUC'riON.  75 

at  the  headworks  without  flowing  into  and  filHng  up 
the  bottom  of  the  canal  proper.  Many  devices  have 
been  invented  in  the  hope  of  diverting  sand  from  a 
ditch,  and  the  best  of  these  no  doubt  is  Gordon  Land's 
sand  gate,  se<5lional  plans  of  which  are  presented  in 
Figs.  13,  14,  and  15. 

In  the  Land  Invention,  the  flume  contains  both 
the  headgates  occupying  the  full  width,  and  the  sand 
gates,  which  are  on  the  lower  side  of  the  canal.  There 
are  two  floors  above  the  headgates,  and  the  flume  is 
set  so  that  the  upper  floor  is  on  the  proper  grade  of  the 
canal.  Just  at  the  flume  and  for  a  short  distance  above, 
the  bottom  of  the  canal  is  about  two  feet  below  the 
grade.  The  sand  gates,  which  may  vary  in  number, 
according  to  the  width  of  the  canal,  are  on  the  lower 
side,  and  each  of  these  gates  is  connedted  with  the 
canal  by  a  separate  channel  until  it  reaches  the  side 
nearest  to  the  discharge.  These  channels  are  curved 
and  properly  fitted.  Each  one  of  these  forms  a:  sepa- 
rate funnel,  and  the  gates  are  kept  constantly  raised 
because,  as  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  canals,  the  natural 
stream  under  riparian  rights  is  entitled  to  the  flow  of 
some  of  its  full  tide  at  least.  The  sand  is  pulled  from 
the  far  side  of  the  canal,  which  is  the  chief  advantage. 
The  planks  forming  the  sand  funnels  are  set  edgewise 
and  thus  support  the  floor  of  the  main  watercourse 
above. 

Waste  Gates. — The  safety-valve  of  a  canal  is  its 
waste  gate,  and  there  are  many  styles  in  use.  That 
which  we  will  describe  herewith  is  known  as  Nelson's 
automatic  waste  gate,  and  is  described  as  follows,  as 
well  as  shown  by  se<ftional  drawing,  Fig.  16. 


76 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


The  gate  (i)  is  built  of  two-inch  plank  securely 
bolted  to  four  gate  standards  2x8  inches  and  of  length 
equal  to  the  depth  of  the  canal  for  which  it  may  be  de- 
signed, and  as  many  gates,  each  three  to  four  feet 
wide,  may  be  placed  in  the  principal  frame,  termed 


FIG.  16 — AUTOMATIC  WASTE  GATE. 

wasteway,  as  the  magnitude  of  the  anticipated  flood 
water  may  require.  The  gate  is  hung  on  substantial 
hinges  at  the  top  to  a  horizontal  beam  4x12  inches,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  Near  the  bottom  the  gate  is  sup- 
ported by  two  levers  (2),  which  are  four  inches  square, 
placed  between  the  gate  standard,  through  which  a 
round  bolt  is  placed,  as  shown  in  plan.  Both  gate 
standards  and  the  ends  of  levers  are  lined  with  cast 
plates  to  prevent  the  bolts  from  being  pressed  into  the 
wood,  to  allow  the  gate  to  move  with  the  least  possible 
fri(5lion.  The  opposite  ends  of  the  levers  (2)  join  in  a 
single  lever  (3),  likewise  with  a  bolt  joint  and  cut 
plates.     These  levers  (3)  are  connedled  with  two  levers 


CANAL   CONSTRUCTION.  77 

(4)  by  being  placed  upon  the  same  axle,  and  also  con- 
nec5led  with  a  triangular  brace  (5). 

At  the  end  and  between  the  top  levers  (4)  is  sus- 
pended upon  an  axle  a  weight  box  (W),  in  which  is 
placed  rocks  or  other  heavy  material  to  counterpoise 
the  pressure  of  water  in  the  canal  against  the  surface 
of  the  gate.  When  the  water  pressure  becomes  greater 
than  the  counterpoise  by  reason  of  increased  depth  of 
water  in  the  canal,  the  gate  swings  open  in  an  outward 
dire6lion  from  the  canal,  and  levers  3  and  4  are  forced 
back  till  the  weight  box  goes  past  the  center  or  per- 
pendicular over  the  main  axle  just  enough  so  as  to 
nearly  counterbalance  the  weight  of  the  gate  and  levers 
I  and  2,  so  that  the  gate  is  floating  loose  on  the  surf  ace 
of  the  freely  escaping  water  with  nothing  to  obstruct 
it,  and  no  opportunity  for  drift  or  silt, to  lodge.  The 
gate  is  turned  open  to  its  full  capacity  and  stands 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  its  position  when  shut.  As 
soon  as  the  flood  has  receded  and  the  water  in  the 
canal  has  lowered  to  its  normal  stage,  the  gate  lowers 
accordingly,  when  the  weight  is  moved  forward  and 
receives  its  former  power  and  closes  the  gate. 

The  forces  adling  through  the  system  of  levers  as 
arranged,  and  holding  the  gate  shut  when  the  water  in 
the  canal  is  at  normal  hight,  or  not  exceeding  the 
hight  to  which  the  gate  has  been  adjusted,  are  reduced 
in  the  same  proportion  as  the  water  pressure  against  the 
gate  is  reduced  when  opened.  Between  each  set  of 
gates  is  placed  a  beam  or  cap  lengthwise  of  the  waste- 
way,  supported  on  posts  to  which  are  fastened  the  box- 
ings in  which  the  main  axle  revolves.  This  axle  is  made 
from  timber  six  inches  square,  banded  at  each  end,  and 


78 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


also  has  a  steel  or  iron  rod  one  and  one-fourth  inches  in 
diameter  passing  through  the  center,  with  ends  pro- 
jecting and  resting  in  the  boxing.  The  levers  3  and  4 
are  bolted  to  the  main  axle. 
Between  levers  4  is  placed  and 
fastened  with  bolts  a  set  of  X 
braces  to  prevent  the  levers  from 
becoming  displaced  by  wind  or 
other  causes,  thus  making  the 
stru(5ture  firm  and  rigid. 

Ditch  Outlets.— The  outlets 
or  culverts  through  the  canal 
banks  to  the  main  lateral  should 
be  set  before  the  bank  is  built 
and  with  reference  to  the  supply 
laterals.  The  size  of  the  outlet 
will  be  governed  by  the  amount 
of  water  to  be  delivered  to  the 
lateral.  The  outlets  may  be  made 
of  plank  or  vitrified  sewer  pipe, 
the  latter  being  especially  good 
but  in  most  cases  not  so  readily 
obtainable.  The  earth  should  be 
well  tamped  about  the  box  or 
pipe  in  order  to  make  a  water- 
tight joint. 

Regarding  gates,  these  should 
be  set  at  the  inner  end  of  the  out- 
lets, and  a  plank  wall  built  from 
the  top  of  the  bank  leading  out 
FIG.  17.  over  the  water  to  a  point  over 

[RON  OUTLET  GATE.         the  gatc,  lu  Order  that  the  gate 


CANAL  CONSTRUCTION.  79 

may  be  lifted.  In  construdtion  the  gate  is  most  simple, 
any  carpenter  or  farmer  being  able  to  build  one.  A 
tight-fitting  slide  over  the  end  of  the  box  or  pipe  outlet 
is  all  that  is  necessary  to  shut  off  the  water.  The  gate 
may  be  raised  or  lowered  by  a  stick  of  2  x  4  bolted  to 
the  front  of  the  gate  and  leading  up  through  slides  or 
guide  holes  in  the  end  of  the  walk.  Simple  means  may 
be  provided  for  fastening  the  gate  either  up  or  down. 
The  pressure  of  the  water  against  the  gate  will  keep  it 
in  position  and  preserve  a  tight  joint  if  the  sliding  sur- 
faces have  been  properly  dressed  or  surfaced.  Grooves 
should  be  provided  in  the  sliding  supports  so  as  to 
make  sure  that  the  gate  will  return  to  its  seat  when  it 
is  desired  to  lower  it.  Modifications  of  detail  are  many 
and  will  suggest  themselves  to  any  one  as  the  condi- 
tions of  the  work  or  the  setting  may  require.  One  of 
these  is  a  cast-iron  lift  gate  working  in  an  iron  frame 
with  grooves,  as  seen  in  Fig.  17. 

Evaporation  and  Seepage.— Evaporation  is 
greatest  during  warm  or  windy  weather,  greater  in 
shallow  than  in  deep  water,  and  greater  in  running  than 
in  still  water.  The  evaporation  of  a  canal  during  June, 
July,  and  August  will  rarely  exceed  three  to  four  inches 
a  day.  During  the  remaining  months  the  average  will 
be  about  one  inch,  making  for  the  year  from  three  to 
five  feet  of  loss  by  evaporation.  To  the  loss  in  this 
must  be  added  the  loss  by  seepage  or  filtration  either 
into  the  earth  or  through  the  banks.  The  amount  of 
seepage  through  the  banks  will  depend  not  only  upon 
the  charadler  of  the  soil  of  which  they  are  made,  but  also 
upon  the  solidity  with  which  they  are  thrown  up.  So 
with  seepage  into  the  earth.     If  the  soil  is  of  soft  loam, 


80  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

sand,  or  gravel  the  percentage  of  loss  will  be  greater  than 
if  the  subsoil  be  of  clay  or  hard-pan.  Careful  measure- 
ments made  in  a  number  of  cases  show  that  with  canals 
having  a  good  grade  and  not  more  than  ten  to  fifteen 
miles  in  length,  nearly  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  water 
diverted  into  them  at  the  head  is  lost  before  the  point 
of  distribution  is  reached.  The  matter  of  filtration  or 
seepage  will  be  dwelt  upon  more  fully  later  on  in  this 
work,  as  it  bears  upon  irrigation  systems  other  than  that 
of  canals. 

Cementing  Canals. — Seepage  loss  may  be  almost 
obviated  by  cementing  the  bottoms  and  sides  of  canals, 
and  in  very  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  this  measure  becomes 
absolutely  imperative.  At  first  most  of  this  work  was 
done  by  lining  the  surface  with  stones,  usually  cobbles 
or  small  bowlders  with  faces  roughly  smoothed,  and 
then  plastering  cement  over  them  and  filling  all  the 
interstices.  This  has  been  done  with  very  many  large 
canals  in  the  southern  part  of  California,  and,  as  may 
be  imagined,  it  is  a  very  expensive  process,  especially 
when  the  canals  are  very  long  and  remote  from  the 
sources  of  supply  of  the  stone  needed.  In  California, 
however,  where  some  of  the  most  expensive  stone  and 
cement  lining  has  been  done  in  the  past,  it  has  been 
found  that  just  as  good  work  can  be  done  and  effedtive 
results  obtained  without  the  use  of  stone  and  with  only 
a  thin  crust  of  cement.  The  method  followed  is  first 
to  completely  saturate  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  canal, 
which  settles  the  earth  thoroughly  in  place,  and  then 
the  coating  of  Portland  or  hydraulic  cement  is  put  on 
with  a  thickness  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  It  has 
been  found  that  this  layer  is  durable  and  abundantly 


CANAL  CONSTRUCTION.  8 1 

able  to  withstand  all  the  strain  that  will  be  put  upon  it. 
The  cement  is  mixed  with  clean  sand  in  the  proportion 
of  one  barrel  of  the  former  to  four  barrels  of  the  latter. 
For  a  canal  carrying  3,500  cubic  inches  of  water,  with 
a  bottom  8  feet  wide  and  sides  4  feet  high,  it  requires 
2,000  barrels  of  cement  for  7  miles  of  length.  The 
work  of  laying  the  cement  is  done  very  rapidly  and 
thoroughly.  Along  the  edge  of  the  canal  a  small  pipe 
is  laid,  through  which  a  steam-pump  forces  the  water 
which  is  used  in  keeping  the  earth  wet  and  in  mixing 
the  mortar.  At  regular  intervals  are  placed  piles  of 
sand  and  barrels  of  cement.  A  mixing-box  on  wheels 
with  a  trough  running  down  into  the  canal  is  run  on 
the  top  of  the  bank,  and  the  plasterers  take  from  this 
and  cement  the  sides.  This  is  moved  along  as  fast 
as  needed,  thus  saving  the  use  of  wheelbarrows.  Fol- 
lowing comes  another  mixing-box  on  wheels  in  the 
bottom  of  the  canal,  and  from  this  the  mortar  is  taken 
to  cement  the  bottom.  The  work  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  time  so  as  to  thoroughly  dry  before  water 
is  turned  in. 

Building  the  Laterals. — In  construdling  the  sup- 
ply laterals  leading  from  the  main  canal  to  the  farm, 
the  walls  should  be  built  up  so  that  the  bottom  of  the 
lateral  may  be  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
This  is  vital  to  the  economic  use  of  water.  The  laterals 
can  be  construdled  in  the  loose  soil  on  the  farm  for  the 
reason  that  the  water  is  desired  to  soak  into  the  ground. 
The  laterals  may  be  changed  every  time  water  is  put  on 
the  land,  for  the  reason  that  always  as  soon  as  possible 
after  irrigating,  the  ground  should  be  cultivated,  thus 
obliterating  the  lateral  and  preventing  the  soil  from 


«2  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

baking.  There  is  nothing  so  good  in  the  long  run  for 
building  ditch  laterals  as  the  common  plow  and  scraper. 
Make  the  ditch  bottom  as  wide  as  the  scraper  even  for 
the  small  laterals,  if  they  are  to  be  permanent.  The 
first  plowing  should  be  at  least  three  times  as  wide  as 
the  finished  ditch,  so  the  earth  may  be  thoroughly 
broken  up  and  no  smooth  or  grass-covered  surface  left 
for  the  bank  to  rest  upon.  On  a  side-hill  the  plowing 
should  extend  well  down  the  lower  side.  Under  an 
extensive  canal  system  a  water  consumer's  land  may 
lie  a  mile  or  two  distant  from  the  main  ditch.  In  a 
case  of  this  kind  the  laterals  must  be  of  a  permanent 
character.  This  work  may  require  as  much  skill  and 
judgment  as  the  construction  of  the  canal  itself,  and 
should  be  well  done.  When  the  ditch  is  completed  let 
a  very  little  water  in  for  the  first  few  days  and  shut  it 
off  every  afternoon.  The  high  embankments  will  settle 
and  are  reasonably  sure  to  crack,  and  the  earth  must 
then  be  tamped  into  the  cracks.  The  ends  of  flumes 
will  need  tamping  and  puddling.  The  coarse  gravel  in 
the  banks  will  leak  like  a  sieve  and  will  require  many 
a  shovelful  of  fine  earth  to  fill  up  the  interstices.  In  a 
few  weeks,  however,  all  will  be  settled  in  place. 

In  laying  out  a  supply  lateral  leading  from  the 
main  canal  it  is  important  to  have  it  large  enough  to 
carry  at  least  double  the  average  amount  of  water  it 
will  contain.  The  water  supply  will  vary  greatly  in  a 
season,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  be 
ready  to  use  all  the  water  available.  In  construdling 
such  a  watercourse  it  is  a  good  plan  to  throw  out  four 
furrows  with  a  sixteen-inch  plow — two  each  way. 
Then  throw  out  and  defepen  the  lateral  with  a  round- 


CANAL  CONSTRUCTION.  83 

pointed,  long-handled  steel  miner's  shovel.  Such  a 
ditch,  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  was  once 
plowed  out  in  half  a  day,  and  four  men  shoveled  it  out 
in  a  day  and  a  half.  Gullies  or  intervening  water- 
courses can  be  flumed  with  lumber,  or,  better  still, 
dammed  or  diked  with  earth.  In  these  instructions 
it  is  presumed  that  the  main  ditch  has  been  built  to  a 
given  elevation,  so  as  to  make  the  laterals  available  in 
condudling  the  water  across  the  highest  end  or  side  of 
the  field  or  farm,  from  which  it  can  be  best  condudled 
onto  the  greatest  area  of  the  land.  Do  not  depend 
upon  the  eye  in  determining  the  location  of  any  perma- 
nent lateral.  The  surface  of  the  land  is  very  deceptive, 
and  water  will  often  seem  to  run  up  hill  to  the  unobser- 
vant. Much  depends  upon  the  natural  contour  of  the 
land  in  locating  the  laterals.  On  land  with  a  fall  of 
18  inches  to  100  feet  laterals  should  be  made  each  60 
feet  apart,  the  water  being  passed  from  one  lateral  to 
the  next,  thus  irrigating  the  intervening  land  between 
the  laterals.  These  field  laterals  can  be  plowed  out 
each  season  with  a  14-inch  lister  or  buster,  and  the 
process  is  described  more  fully  later  on  in  the  chapter 
devoted  to  the  methods  of  applying  water. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
RESERVOIRS   AND    PONDS. 


THE  fortunate  irrigator  who  has  a  reservoir  of  his 
I  own  has  his  water-supply  constantly  on  tap — 
^^S  the  reservoir  may  also  appropriately  be  called 
the  f  armer ' s  savings  bank.  An  irrigation  sys- 
tem depending  upon  storage,  when  the  storage  works 
are  judiciously  constructed,  is  the  most  reliable  of  all. 
The  reservoirs  can  hold  the  waters  of  a  wet  year  for 
use  in  a  dry  one,  and  in  the  possible  sequence  of  sev- 
eral dry  years  the  smaller  stored  supply  gives  several 
months'  warning  to  irrigators,  so  that  water  can  be 
husbanded  and  made  to  perform  a  larger  duty  than 
usual  in  order  to  tide  over  a  period  of  scarcity. 

The  problem  of  water  storage  for  irrigation  is  a 
very  different  one  from  that  for  the  domestic  supply  of 
a  city.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  important  that  water  for 
domestic  use  be  as  nearly  as  possible  free  from  mud  and 
organic  impurities,  while  for  irrigation  such  impurities 
are  not  only  no  obje(5lion  to  the  water  but  often  mate- 
rially add  to  its  value  by  enriching  the  soil  to  which  it 
is  applied.  Waters  held  in  reservoirs  and  intended  for 
irrigation  purposes  are  often  rendered  much  warmer 
than  the  flowing  waters  of  streams,  and  are  therefore 
more  beneficial  to  plant  growth  when  drawn  off  and 
applied.  The  reservoirs  must  also  be  credited  with 
having  a  salutary  effe<5l  on  the  atmosphere  of  the  arid 
84 


RESERVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  85 

region,  and  countless  numbers  of  them  scattered  here 
and  there  over  the  lands  would  greatly  increase  the 
humidity,  and  bring  about  a  marked  meteorological 
change  for  the  better.  In  Western  Kansas,  for  in- 
stance, a  small  frac5lion  of  the  precipitation  during  the 
year  would  make  a  lake  one-fourth  of  a  mile  square 
and  five  feet  deep  for  every  se<5lion  of  land.  This 
could  be  utilized  easily  for  irrigation. 

A  grand  system  of  reservoirs  in  arid  America 
would  greatly  reduce  the  dangers  of  floods  and  render 
immunity  from  the  horrors  of  deluge  that  every  year 
come  to  the  settlers  along  the  lower  Mississippi.  The 
ancients  understood  this  principle,  for,  in  order  to 
remedy  the  inconvenience  of  the  torrential  period, 
when  the  country  was  flooded,  and  of  the  subsequent 
drouth  for  five  months,  the  Romans  covered  their 
African  provinces  with  a  network  of  hydraulic  struc- 
tures. From  the  summit  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea 
all  the  rains  that  fell  were  seized  upon,  led  here  and 
there  in  channels,  and  distributed  over  the  fields.  In 
the  smallest  mountain  ravines  stone  dams  were  built  to 
retain  water.  In  the  valleys  they  arrested  its  progress 
down-stream.  By  this  means  the  Romans  prevented 
great  floods  descending  the  mountains  at  times  of 
heavy  rains,  and  retained  a  larger  part  of  the  precipi- 
tation in  the  higher  reservoirs  until  such  time  as  the 
water  thus  preserved  was  needed.  At  the  entrance  to 
each  large  valley  was  a  system  of  works  which  assured 
not  only  the  watering  of  that  immediate  region  but 
condu<5led  flowing  streams  through  many  channels,  so 
that  the  surrounding  earth  could  absorb  what  was  re- 
quired.    At  the  entrance  of  each  large  stream  on  a 


86  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

plain  a  dam  was  built,  generally  to  retain  the  waters 
and  prevent  their  sudden  invasion  of  the  plain  before 
they  were  required. 

Location  of  Reservoirs. — In  the  sele<5lion  of 
reservoir  sites  regard  must  be  had  to  several  considera- 
tions— the  area  and  character  of  land  to  be  irrigated 
and  its  distance  from  the  proposed  reservoir  ;  the  area 
of  the  watershed,  the  drainage  from  which  is  to  fill  it ; 
and  both  the  maximum  and  minimum  annual  rainfall 
of  the  watershed.  If  the  quantity  and  value  of  the 
land  to  be  watered  and  the  capacity  of  the  reservoir  are 
great  as  compared  with  the  available  water  to  be 
stored,  it  may  be  advisable  to  build  a  reservoir  of  suf- 
ficient capacity  to  contain  much  more  than  the  mini- 
mum annual  run-off,  so  that  the  discharge  of  wet  years 
may  be  saved  for  use  in  time  of  drouth.  If  storage 
reservoirs  are  to  be  construdled,  a  great  degree  of  en- 
gineering skill  is  required.  The  character  of  the  con- 
struc5lion  of  the  dam  will  differ  in  every  case  with  the 
nature  of  the  foundation  and  the  availability  of  struc- 
tural material.  Some  of  the  greatest  reservoir  dams 
ever  built  have  been  constru<5ted  for  purely  irrigation 
purposes,  and  have  required  more  skill  in  their  design 
than  have  any  built  for  city  water-supply  or  other 
hydraulic  uses.  The  basin  seledled  must  be  such  as 
will  store  the  greatest  amount  of  water  with  the 
greatest  economy  of  construcflion.  It  is  manifest  that 
inasmuch  as  reservoirs  cannot  be  excavated  within  rea- 
sonable conditions  of  cost,  they  must  be  natural  basins. 
In  many  cases  these  will  be  existing  lakes,  and  while 
many  such  will  require  dams  at  their  outlets  in  order 
to  regulate  by  gates  the  outflow  of  the  water,  there  are 


RESERVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  87 

some  which  can  be  controlled  by  tapping  below  the 
level  of  the  natural  discharge.  Such  reservoirs  will 
be  most  economical  as  outlets,  only  they  will  have  to 
be  constructed  and  guarded  by  bulkheads,  and  the 
natural  evaporation  surface  will  not  be  enlarged. 

Reservoir  sites  may  be  divided  into  two  great 
classes  :  Natural  lakes  or  depressions,  and  reservoir 
sites  on  drainage  lines.  Such  sites  have  two  impor- 
tant advantages — the  dams  are  not  endangered  by  the 
enormous  floods  that  are  bound  to  occur  on  streams, 
and  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for  disposing  of  the 
rock  and  silt  from  the  storm  waters  stored  before  they 
reach  the  reservoirs. 

In  the  location  of  small  individual  ponds  no  great 
engineering  skill  is  required,  and  the  construction  is 
at  once  a  very  simple  and  easy  task,  especially  where 
only  an  earth  excavation  is  required,  on  flat  land  or  in 
a  draw.  If  a  place  can  be  found  from  which  the  water 
will  naturally  run  in  several  dire(5lions,  all  the  better, 
because  more  land  may  then  be  reached  at  less  cost. 
Where  there  is  a  good  clay  subsoil,  not  porous,  and 
the  soil  above  has  in  it  considerable  admixture  of  clay, 
a  first-class  reservoir  may  be  construdled  out  of  the 
soil. 

In  treating  the  constru(5lion  of  reservoirs  we  shall 
endeavor  to  take  up  the  subjedls  separately,  so  that  the 
reader  may  not  be  confounded  as  to  instru(5lions  that 
may  apply  to  a  work  of  lesser  importance  than  that  in- 
tended. Large  reservoirs  are  a  menace  too  often  to 
public  safety  and  mark  the  danger-line  in  irrigating 
works,  so  that  no  serious  mistake  should  be  made  in 
building  them. 


88  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Laying  Out  Reservoirs.— As  we  have  said  be- 
fore, reservoirs  should  be  built  on  as  high  ground  as 
possible.  Never  selecfl  a  place  for  a  reservoir  where 
the  bottom  is  more  than  four  or  five  feet  below  the 
point  of  delivery,  for  all  surplus  water  below  this 
point  does  no  good,  and  a  dam  must  be  built  just  so 
much  stronger  to  hold  this  extra  head.  The  pressure 
on  the  dam  is  no  greater  where  the  flowage  is  large 
than  where  it  is  small.  It  is  the  hight  of  the  column 
of  water  at  the  dam  that  must  be  figured  on.  High 
dams  when  not  properly  built  are  unsafe.  Surface 
is  the  one  thing  most  desirable  in  locating  a  reservoir. 
Get  an  idea  of  the  size  to  be  attained  before  the  work 
is  begun,  and  at  the  same  time  make  a  calculation  as 
to  the  capacity  of  the  proposed  basin  when  completed. 

The  size  having  been  determined,  the  staking  out 
follows.  If  the  reservoir  is  to  cover  a  given  area,  the 
whole  banks  will  be  within  the  area,  and  the  foot  of 
the  outer  slope  will  bound  the  given  area.  If  the  area 
is  to  exclude  the  bank,  the  foot  of  the  inner  slope  will 
bound  the  area.  If  the  water  is  to  cover  a  given  area, 
then  the  high-water  line  as  the  point  half-way  down  the 
bank  therefrom  will  bound  the  given  area,  or  the  area 
may  be  bounded  by  the  center  line,  either  of  the  whole 
bank  or  of  the  top  of  the  bank.  These  conditions  do 
not  of  course  obtain  where  the  natural  sides  of  a  ravine 
or  cafion  are  to  form  the  greater  portion  of  the  reser- 
voir's contour.  Usually  these  considerations  will  not 
be  of  much  importance,  but  in  the  case  of  joint  owner- 
ship or  of  contradling  for  the  constru(5lion  they  may  be 
important,  and  should  then  be  clearly  understood  and 
carefully  specified. 


RESERVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  89 

Construction. — One  of  the  first  things  to  be  done 
after  the  site  is  secured  is  to  make  provision  to  draw 
oif  the  water.  In  building  a  large  reservoir  with  an 
earth  embankment,  wooden  boxes  or  cribs  of  timber 
(although  sometimes  employed)  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended for  permanent  use,  as  they  soon  decay,  are 
very  difficult  to  replace,  are  a  source  of  weakness  to 
the  reservoir,  and  do  not  admit  of  easily  inserting  a 
gate  which  can  be  freely  operated.  Stone  culverts  laid 
in  cement  are  more  costly  and  substantial  as  a  rule, 
but  require  a  special  gate,  which  may  give  trouble. 
Iron  piping,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds  in  the 
market,  is  perhaps  the  most  suitable,  and  by  its  use 
one  can  purchase  the  standard  low-pressure  water- 
valves  such  as  are  in  use  in  city  waterworks,  that  are 
guaranteed  to  give  satisfa(5lion.  In  laying  the  pipe 
care  must  be  taken  to  provide  a  safe  and  continuous 
bearing  beneath  it,  otherwise  the  load  imposed  by  the 
earth  above  will  cause  portions  to  settle  and  so  loosen 
the  joints. 

It  is  necessary,  too,  to  dig  one  or  more  cross 
trenches  from  the  pipe  and  pack  them  full  of  concrete, 
clay,  or  good  earthen  puddle,  bringing  the  same  up 
two  or  more  feet  above  the  pipe  so  as  to  arrest  any 
leakage  along  the  outlet  pipe.  The  surface  upon 
which  embankments  are  to  rest  should  be  plowed  and 
the  roots  of  bushes  and  weeds  removed  to  the  outer 
toe  of  the  slope,  after  which  the  ground  is  again 
plowed  and  a  trench  dug  along  the  center  of  each  pro- 
posed embankment.  When  this  much  is  done  water 
should  be  applied.  The  abundant  use  of  water  is  of 
prime  importance  in  all  works  of  this  nature.     Allow 


90  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

water  to  run  into  the  trench  until  full,  then  begin  to 
form  the  base  of  the  embankments.  As  the  contents 
of  the  scrapers,  carts,  or  wagons  are  dumped  on  the 
fill,  have  them  thoroughly  sprinkled,  using,  if  no 
sprinkling  cart  is  handy,  a  large  barrel  or  plank  box 
with  a  piece  of  perforated  pipe  for  a  sprinkler,  con- 
trolled by  a  flap  valve  faced  with  leather. 

As  the  fill  rises  more  water  is  turned  into  the  trench, 
so  that  the  whole  base  presents  the  appearance  of  two 
low,  wide  embankments,  with  a  canal  full  of  water 
between  them.  By  building  with  water  in  the  center 
prac5lically  the  same  results  are  secured  as  with  a  core 
of  puddle  clay,  concrete,  or  masonry,  without  the  seri- 
ous disadvantage  of  a  joint  on  each  side  of  such  a  core, 
which  often  proves  fatal  to  the  strudlure.  By  the  other 
way  there  are  no  distin<5l  joints,  since  the  water  in  the 
trench  percolates  quite  a  distance  on  each  side,  and  then 
these  half  embankments  are  watered  by  sprinkler,  and 
packed  by  the  passage  of  teams  into  a  mass  nearly  as 
compa<5l  as  that  done  under  water.  Another  sugges- 
tion to  those  inexperienced  in  such  work  may  be  made 
in  relation  to  the  sorting  of  the  materials.  In  nearly 
every  case  in  pra<5lice  the  contents  of  the  bank  of  the 
pit  differ,  running  from  fine  to  coarse  and  from  porous 
to  impervious,  and  successful  prac5tice  requires  the  plac- 
ing of  that  which  is  the  best  adapted  to  retain  water 
next  to  the  edge  of  the  water,  or  on  the  inner  half, 
while  the  rocks,  larger  gravel  and  heavy  substances  in 
general  are  ranged  from  the  outside  toward  the  center 
on  the  outer  half.  It  is  the  rule  of  pradlical  builders 
of  earthen  embankments  to  make  the  width  of  the  base 
line  three  times  the  hight,  and  this  kind  of  construe- 


FIG.  l8 — BEAR  VALLEY   DAM. 


91 


92  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

tion,  if  properly  put  up,  will  stand  any  natural  pressure 
that  may  come  upon  it  from  the  impounded  waters. 

In  storing  water  for  irrigation  it  is  advisable  to 
make  the  slopes,  particularly  the  inner  one,  more  flat, 
and  to  protedl  them,  where  they  are  likely  to  be  washed, 
by  riprapping  with  rock,  or  slag,  or  lining  with  lum- 
ber. In  works  of  lesser  magnitude  pebble-stones  placed 
along  the  water-line  will  serve  the  purpose  just  as  well. 

Masonry  Work. — In  construdling  a  dam  entirely 
of  solid  masonry  no  definite  rules  can  be  given,  as  the 
circumstances  governing  all  cases  will  in  no  two 
instances  be  ahke,  and  we  can  only  give  the  method  by 
which  a  substantial  dam  of  this  sort  has  been  con- 
stru<5led.  L^t  us  take  for  example  the  Bear  valley  reser- 
voir in  Southern  California.  Into  the  solid  rocks  of  a 
gorge  the  dam  is  abutted  and  is  built  in  a  curve  arching 
inward,  forming  the  arc  of  a  circle,  with  a  diameter  of 
335  feet,  illustrated  very  graphically  in  Fig.  i8.  Its 
dimensions  are,  on  the  top,  300  feet  from  the  abut- 
ments, 60  feet  from  the  bed-rock  of  the  creek  in  the 
highest  point,  and  conforming  to  the  mountain  slope 
on  either  side.  The  foundation  is  17  feet  in  width, 
running  up  to  3  feet  on  the  top,  which  is  covered  with 
huge  blocks  for  coping.  The  whole  is  built  of  vast 
granite  blocks,  which  were  quarried  near  the  margin 
of  the  lake  and  floated  to  the  wall  on  scows,  while  a 
derrick  built  on  a  raft  placed  them  in  position.  The 
best  quality  of  Portland  cement  was  used  for  laying 
them,  and  all  the  interstices  were  filled  with  beton, 
which  was  thoroughly  tamped  into  place,  until  the 
whole  stru(5lure  is  one  homogeneous  mass.  There  are 
3,304  yards  of  rock  work,  on  which  1,300  barrels  of 


94  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

cement  have  been  used.  The  cement  was  the  most 
expensive  portion  of  the  work.  Beneath  the  dam  is  a 
stone  culvert  for  the  outlet.  This  is  closed  by  a  gate 
21  X24  inches,  capable  of  discharging  8,000  inches  of 
water,  which  runs  into  a  weir,  where  the  flow  is  meas- 
ured in  inches.  This  gate  and  weir  control  the  flow  of 
water.  On  one  side  of  the  dam  a  spillway  over  solid 
rock  is  provided  for  the  overflow  of  the  surplus  water. 
This  is  some  four  feet  lower  than  the  crest  of  the  dam 
and  affords  ample  discharge  for  the  superabundant 
water. 

The  Sweetwater  dam,  built  across  the  mouth  of  a 
cafion  a  short  distance  above  National  City,  California, 
and  shown  in  the  full-page  photographic  reprodudlion, 
Fig.  19,  is  one  of  the  boldest  pieces  of  engineering  in 
the  world.  The  dam  is  construc5led  as  a  crown  arch, 
and  is  the  largest  of  its  characfler  in  the  world.  It  is 
of  solid  granite  and  Portland  cement,  46  feet  thick  at 
the  base  and  12  at  the  top.  It  is  90  feet  high  at  bed- 
rock, 76  feet  long  at  the  base  and  396  feet  at  the  top. 
The  reservoir  covers  700  acres,  and  has  the  enormous 
storage  capacity  of  six  billions  of  gallons.  The  water 
is  discharged  from  the  reservoir  by  means  of  a  main 
pipe  36  inches  in  diameter,  and  then  by  smaller  pipes. 
Much  of  the  land  under  this  system  is  high  and  rolling, 
but  the  head  is  sufficient  to  carry  the  water  to  the 
highest  portions.  The  dam  gathers  the  rainfall  from 
186  square  miles,  and  the  capacity  of  the  reservoir  is 
sufficient  to  hold  a  two  years'  supply  for  10,000  acres. 

Cost  and  Capacity. — In  calculating  the  cost  of  a 
reservoir  it  is  necessary  to  fix  the  value  of  a  defined 
volume  of  water  for  irrigation  purposes.     For  conven- 


RESERVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  95 

ience  take  a  volume  of  water  of  one  million  cubic  feet. 
If  this  amount  is  applied  without  loss  in  transporta- 
tion, as  through  pipes,  it  will  irrigate  on  an  average 
twenty  acres  of  land  for  one  season  when  used  very 
carefully.  Assuming  one-half  of  this  area  to  allow  for 
unavoidable  loss  by  absorption,  evaporation,  and  the 
loss  by  the  ordinary  pradlice  of  irrigation,  the  area 
value  of  one  million  cubic  feet  of  water  will  be  consid- 
ered as  ten  acres.  On  this  basis  of  ten  acres  for  one 
million  cubic  feet,  the  cost  of  a  reservoir  built  entirely 
on  the  surface  of  nearly  level  ground  from  excavation 
made  within  the  area  enclosed,  without  borrowing  or 
wasting  material,  has  been  calculated.  The  price 
assumed  for  earthwork  is  twenty  cents  a  cubic  yard, 
which  for  banks  20  feet  high,  with  a  long  haul,  is  a 
fair  price.  The  size  calculated  is  1,283  ^^^^  by  641.05 
feet,  holding  23,500,000  cubic  feet  of  water.  The  cost  is 
$37,617,  which  at  7  percent,  per  annum  interest  would 
be  equal  to  an  annual  charge  of  $2,633,  or  $112.21  for 
a  million  cubic  feet,  without  any  allowance  for  main- 
tenance. This,  at  the  area  value  of  ten  acres  for  a 
million  cubic  feet,  would  irrigate  235  acres  at  a  cost  of 
$11.22  an  acre,  which  represents  the  total  cost  for  all 
time  to  come. 

At  some  sites  it  might  be  necessary  to  pump  water, 
and  under  the  conditions  likely  to  be  met  in  pradlice, 
where  the  work  will  be  done  in  isolated  localities  and 
confined  to  90  or  1 20  days'  work  in  the  year,  while  the 
interest  on  the  cost  of  the  plant  will  have  to  be  charged 
for  a  whole  year,  the  cost  will  average  about  fifteen 
cents  a  million  cubic  feet  to  the  foot  raised,  or  about 
$15  to  raise  that  amount  of  water  loo  feet.     This  esti- 


96  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

mate  is  made  on  the  basis  of  coal  costing  $5  a  ton,  and 
an  average  engine  of  50-horse  power.  If  the  water  is 
pumped  during  the  whole  year  the  cost  will  be  re- 
duced to  two-thirds  of  this  amount.  With  a  depres- 
sion having  natural  sides  in  place,  and  where  not  more 
than  one- fourth  of  the  circumference  would  have  to  be 
constru<5led,  the  cost  would  be  proportionately  less. 

Damming  a  Stream. — The  chief  cause  of  failure 
in  dams  of  all  kinds  is  the  faulty  construcflion  of  the 
foundation.  Dams  should  be  made  of  timber  or  stone. 
For  a  safe  and  simple  form  of  timber  dam  the  founda- 
tion should  be  rock  or  a  hard-pan  of  gravel,  and  the 
mudsills  on  the  lower  tier  should  be  bedded  in  broken 
rock,  pounded  down  firmly  with  a  fifteen-pound  sledge. 
The  sills  are  saddled,  and  the  cross-ties  laid  upon  them 
are  notched  to  rCvSt  upon  the  saddles,  and  two-inch  pins 
should  be  put  through  both  of  the  logs.  Where  the 
foundation  is  shelving  rock,  one-and-a-half  inch  iron 
pins  should  be  put  down  into  the  rock  at  least  a  foot, 
to  prevent  sliding.  But  the  sliding  force  is  almost 
neutralized  in  this  form  of  dam  by  the  weight  of  water 
which  lies  upon  the  sheeting. 

The  tiers  of  timber  are  built  up,  saddled,  and 
notched.  A  plank  sheeting  is  put  down  to  the  solid 
foundation  above  the  first  sill,  and  the  end  is  spiked 
with  eightpenny  spikes  firmly.  The  sheeting  is  filled 
to  the  foundation  as  close  as  possible,  and  hydraulic 
cement  concrete  is  bedded  in  front  of  it  to  make  a  tight 
joint.  No  leaks  will  ever  trouble  a  dam  founded  in 
this  way.  The  rafters  should  be  strong  enough  to 
bear  any  weight  of  water  which  the  stream  may  carr}- 
doubled.     If  the  highest  flood  known  is  five  or  ten 


RESERVOIRS  AND   PONDS. 


97 


feet  above  the  usual  level,  it  is  easy  to  estimate  the 
strength  of  the  rafters  required  and  then  double  the 
number  of  them,  putting  them  no  more  than  two  feet 
apart  if  the  sheeting  is  of  one-inch  board  doubled.  An 
apron  should  be  put  on  the  dam  to  receive  the  overflow. 


FIG.  20— DIVERTING  DAM. 

A  masonry  dam  should  be  built  on  a  foundation  of 
concrete,  laid  on  solid  rock  over  piles  driven  close  to- 
gether, and  both  sides  protected  by  sheet  piling.  The 
piles  should  be  left  to  protrude  into  the  concrete  f oun- 
'dation.  Except  for  waterworks,  or  an  irrigation  con- 
duit, there  should  be  no  outlet  in  the  bottom  of  the 


98  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

dam  ;  but  the  work  should  be  of  the  most  solid  charac- 
ter. A  waste  channel  for  overflow  should  be  made  on 
the  top  large  enough  to  carry  ofi"  any  possible  flood, 
and  the  ends  of  the  dam  should  be  carried  up  with  solid 
masonry  as  high  as  may  ever  be  needed  to  prevent  the 
cutting  out  of  the  ends  by  floods.  A  large  dam 
should  be  constructed,  regardless  of  expense,  to  secure 
safety  in  every  direction,  and  the  small  details  of  con- 
strudlion  are  very  often  the  most  important  parts  of 
the  work. 

Storage  Ponds. — ^These  are  classified  as  those 
artificial  embankments  that  are  made  on  the  flat  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  and  are  used  mostly  in  connedlion 
with  a  pumping  plant.  In  staking  out,  it  will  be  best 
for  the  convenience  of  graders  to  drive  stakes  on  the 
outer  and  inner  base-lines  of  the  proposed  bank.  If 
the  land  on  which  the  reservoir  is  to  be  built  be  of 
fresh  sod  it  will  be  necessary  to  plow  up  or  remove  all 
of  the  sod  from  the  ground  on  which  the  embankments 
are  to  be  construdled,  otherwise  there  would  remain  a 
seam  through  which  the  water  would  escape  from  the 
reservoir,  as  sod  is  not  a  suitable  material  upon  which 
to  build  embankments,  nor  should  it  be  used  when 
building  them  up  to  their  required  hights.  When  the 
outlines  of  the  embankments  are  established  and  the 
sod  removed,  then  plow  within  lines  of  the  proposed 
embankments,  and  with  a  scraper  draw  the  earth  from 
the  inside  of  the  reservoir,  with  which  to  form  the 
walls.  These  should  be  not  less  than  five  feet  in 
hight,  measuring  on  the  outside,  and  very  wide  or 
thick  at  the  ground  level.  The  walls  should  be  so 
carried  up  that  the  slope  from  the  inside  will  be  very 


RESERVOIRS   AND   PONDS.  99 

gradual,  not  abrupt,  for  the  reason  that  if  the  walls 
are  nearly  perpendicular  wind  waves  will  destroy  them, 
hence  the  advantage  of  making  the  walls  very  sloping 
from  the  inside.  The  outer  walls  may  be  made  more 
perpendicular,  because  there  is  no  influence  from  the 
outside  to  injure  them. 

Having  built  the  walls  by  using  the  earth  from  the 
inside  of  the  reservoir,  and  with  everything  ready  for 
puddling  the  earth  to  hold  water,  the  first  thing  in 
order  is  to  plow  all  of  the  land  over  the  whole  bottom 
surface  of  the  reservoir  four  or  five  inches  deep,  then 
with  a  harrow  or  drag,  or  other  suitable  implement, 
reduce  the  earth  to  a  very  fine  pulverization,  and  after 
this  shall  have  been  thoroughly  done  the  next  thing  is 
to  puddle.  Turn  the  water  into  the  reservoir  and  be- 
gin to  puddle  at  one  edge,  puddling  carefully  along 
this  edge  until  the  earth  shall  have  been  reduced  to 
mortar,  and  continue  to  work  toward  the  other  side 
until  the  entire  bottom  of  the  pond  is  completed  as  far 
up  the  embankment  as  can  be  worked  to  good  advan- 
tage. It  may  often  happen  that  puddling  is  out  of 
the  question  owing  to  the  porous  condition  of  the  bot- 
tom. If  the  soil  is  vSandy  haul  into  the  basin  several 
loads  of  any  kind  of  clay  obtainable  and  mix  this 
thoroughly  with  the  earth.  Fresh  manure,  or  even 
sawdust,  may  often  be  employed  to  just  as  good  advan- 
tage. Very  often  it  is  only  necessary  to  run  muddy 
water  into  it  and  allow  the  sediment  to  find  its  way 
into  the  loose  sand.  Of  course  the  more  clay  that  is 
carried  in  the  muddy  water  the  more  effe(?tual  will 
be  the  puddling.  This  method  has  proven  success- 
ful in  a  very  leaky  lake  which  was  excavated  in  an 


lOO  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

old  creek  bottom  and  almost  entirely  in  coarse  loose 
sand. 

In  construdling  these  surface  storage  basins  the 
dimensions  are  best  when  fifty  by  one  hundred  feet,  or 
one  hundred  by  two  hundred  feet,  etc. ,  rather  than  of 
square  form.  A  pond  that  is  fifty  by  one  hundred 
feet  and  containing  five  feet  of  water  will  irrigate 
twenty-five  acres,  and  the  whole  plant,  including  a 
first-class  wind  engine,  should  not  cost  over  $250.  It 
is  a  good  rule  to  have  the  pond  of  such  size  that  it 
would  not  be  necessary  to  empty  it  oftener  than  once 
or  twice  a  week.  That  would  make  the  supply  of 
water  at  hand  the  main  factor  in  determining  the  size 
of  the  pond.  It  might  readily  be  figured  out  in  this 
way  :  One  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches.  A  space 
23.1  inches  high,  covering  ten  square  inches,  equals 
one  gallon,  and  one  square  foot,  or  144  square  inches, 
14.4  gallons.  Now  divide  the  number  of  gallons 
which  can  be  pumped  in  three  days'  steady  wind  by 
14.4,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of  square  feet 
necessary  for  the  bottom  of  a  pond  two  feet  deep,  and 
one-half  that  number  will  be  sufficient  for  one  four  feet 
deep. 

Cementing. — To  make  a  pond  perfedlly  imper- 
vious for  all  time  and  give  the  best  satisfac5lion  in  the 
end,  line  it  with  paving  pitch  or  Portland  cement.  If 
the  latter,  the  preparation  can  be  applied  the  same  as 
described  in  the  preceding  chapter  on  canal  construc- 
tion. The  best  coating  for  such  work  is  a  composition 
of  hot  clean  sand  mixed  with  hot  paving  pitch,  to 
which  has  been  added  a  percentage  of  crude  oil  resi- 
duum,  and  the  whole   mixture  applied  hot,  say  at 


RESERVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  101 

about  300  degrees,  and  spread  much  in  the  same  way 
as  the  asphalt  coating  is  applied  upon  streets.  This 
mixture  could  be  used  while  hot  as  a  mortar  and 
spread  with  a  trowel  or  with  a  flat  shovel.  If  spread 
smoothly  and  evenly  while  hot,  and  with  as  much 
pressure  as  possible  to  make  it  compac^l,  it  would  soon 
set  and  form  a  coating  that  would  give  more  or  less 
with  the  settling  of  the  ground,  that  would  be  abso- 
lutely water-tight  and  that  would  not  deteriorate  un- 
der the  changes  of  temperature.  The  paving  mixture 
itself  comes  in  barrels  of  some  550  pounds  and  could 
be  furnished  at  $25  a  ton.  The  sand,  free  from  any 
loam,  could  always  be  secured  at  or  very  near  the 
pond,  and  the  whole  mixed  at  the  job  and  applied  as 
fast  as  mixed.  It  would  be  safe  to  estimate  that  the 
paving  pitch  for  this  kind  of  work  would  not  exceed 
three  cents  a  square  foot  should  the  entire  coating  run 
an  inch  thick  when  laid.  Treated  in  this  way  a  pond 
will  not  leak,  and  the  only  loss  of  water  will  be  from 
evaporation,  which  varies  from  50  to  100  inches  an- 
nually. This  loss  reduces  the  amount  for  irrigation  or 
other  purposes  that  can  be  depended  upon  by  about  30 
per  cent.  The  more  humid  the  section  the  less  the 
loss. 

Gates  and  Spillways. — In  all  large  reservoirs  it 
is  necessary  to  provide  a  conduit  or  culvert  to  convey 
the  water  to  the  supply  ditch  leading  from  the  reser- 
voir. This  may  be  built  of  masonry  work  the  proper 
size  to  carry  the  amount  of  water  the  ditch  will  accom- 
modate, and  should  be  laid  up  with  water  lime  or 
cement.  As  we  have  said,  this  should  be  built  the  first 
thing  before  the  walls  of  the  reservoir  are  commenced. 


I02  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

The  gate  should  always  be  put  on  the  inside  end.  A 
very  simple  and  easy  gate  to  operate,  say  up  to  eight 
or  nine  feet  surface,  is  what  is  called  the  paddle  gate. 
The  end  of  the  sluice  that  the  gate  goes  on  should  be 
made  as  follows:  Extend  the  bottom  into  the  pond  eight 
or  ten  inches,  pull  the  top  back  so  the  sides  will  describe 
an  angle  of  fifty-five  degrees  to  the  bottom  line,  make 
the  face  straight  and  smooth,  put  two  pieces  of  3  x  6  tim- 
ber on  top  of  the  wall  and  let  them  run  back  under  the 
dirt  work.  Cut  the  paddle  or  gate  about  two  inches 
larger  than  the  aperture.  Bolt  two  cleats  near  the  ends 
and  let  them  extend  four  inches  above.  Then  bolt  on 
a  handle  or  lever  in  the  center  three  by  four  inches, 
and  eight  feet  long  ;  bolt  a  roller  crosswise  to  the  cleats 
and  handle  close  down  to  the  top  of  the  gate,  and  make 
some  convex  boxes  in  the  timbers  on  top  of  the  wall  to 
receive  them.  Put  some  strap  iron  over  these  gudgeons 
so  the  water  will  not  lift  the  gate  out  of  place.  Put  a 
pulley  in  the  top  end  of  the  handle  and  set  a  post  on 
the  top  of  the  embankment.  Fasten  one  end  of  the 
rope  to  the  post  and  pass  it  through  the  pulley  and 
back  to  the  post.  The  a(5tion  of  the  water  will  always 
close  the  gate,  and  to  open  it  take  hold  of  the  loose 
end  of  the  rope,  and  pull  back  and  snub  it  to  the 
post. 

If  the  reservoir  is  so  situated  that  it  will  catch  any 
amount  of  surface  or  storm  water  it  must  be  provided 
with  an  ample  spillway  large  enough  to  take  off  the 
surplus  water,  so  that  in  no  emergency  can  the  water 
rise  over  the  crest  of  the  dam ;  and  the  spillway  must 
be  provided  with  large  and  ample  aprons,  so  the 
momentum  of  the  water  pouring  over  the  spillway  will 


RESERVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  I03 

not  cut  out  the  bottom  below  the  dam  and  undermine 
it.  More  dams  are  lost  from  the  adlion  of  the  water 
on  the  lower  side  than  on  the  upper  side. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  building  storm  reser- 
voirs is  to  build  a  substantial  wasteway.  This  should 
be  built  of  timber  bents  boarded  up  with  two-inch 
plank.  Make  a  water-tight  bottom  under  the  waste- 
way.  This  can  be  done  either  with  lumber  or  brush. 
If  made  of  brush,  cut  willows  and  tie  them  in  bundles 
six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter  ;  the  length  of  the  whips 
should  be  ten  or  twelve  feet.  Tie  two  bands  around 
them  three  or  four  feet  apart.  Commence  with  the 
brush  at  least  thirty  feet  below  the  center  line  of  the 
dam  and  lay  the  bundles  butt  end  down-stream,  close 
together  in  tiers  at  least  six  feet  wider  than  the  waste- 
way.  Then  commence  with  another  tier,  putting  them 
back  three  feet  up-stream,  and  so  on,  until  they  reach 
into  the  reservoir  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  above  the  cen- 
ter line.  Put  onto  the  brush  a  light  coat  of  gravel  so 
as  to  fill  up  all  the  cracks,  and  then  erect  the  bentwork 
on  this  bottom.  Plank  up  the  sides  with  two-inch 
plank  and  fill  in  between  the  sides  of  the  bentwork 
level  with  gravel,  and  put  plenty  of  gravel  on  that  part 
of  brush  above  the  bentwork. 

A  Hydraulic  Embankment. — A  novelty  in  the 
way  of  reservoir  construdlion  is  that  of  the  great  dam 
built  by  a  local  water  company  at  Santa  F^,  New 
Mexico.  By  means  of  a  gigantic  hydraulic  plant,  the 
sides  of  a  canon  were  torn  down  and  the  detached 
material  thus  obtained  was  carried  through  a  fourteen- 
inch  main  and  deposited  on  the  embankment  under  a 
pressure  of  140  pounds  to  the  square  inch.   The  ac5lion 


104 


IRRIGATION  FARMING. 


of  the  water  both  cemented  and  puddled  it  there. 
Immediately  above  the  site  the  banks  of  the  stream 
separate  so  as  to  include  a  reservoir  of  a  somewhat  oval 
shape  1 ,600  feet  long  and  500  feet  in  average  width,  and 
of  an  average  depth  of  30  feet.  As  shown  by  the  cross- 
sedlion  in  Fig.  21,  the  dam  is  85  feet  in  hight  at  the 
middle  of  the  stream  and  is  300  feet  wide  at  the  bottom. 
Its  entire  length  is  over  i  ,000  feet.  Its  careful  construc- 
tion and  the  precautions  taken  to  render  the  dam 
impervious  to  water  are  shown  by  the  cross-sedlion. 


«■  »  »■  »■  Mi  yi  «• 


FIG.  21 — CROSS-SECTION   OF   HYDRAULIC   RESERVOIR. 


Under  the  upper  half  of  the  dam  the  excavation  is 
made  to  bed-rock;  parallel  strips  of  bed-rock  surface 
are  broken  fresh,  and  concrete  ribs  built  thereon 
parallel  with  the  center  of  the  dam.  In  these  concrete 
ribs,  in  the  composition  of  which  the  very  best 
hydraulic  cement  is  used,  triple  sheet  piling  is  embed- 
ded and  carried  up  into  the  puddle.  The  entire  upper 
half  of  the  dam  was  puddled  and  spread  in  thin  layers, 
and  each  day  a  herd  of  goats  was  driven  onto  the 
bank  and  kept  moving  the  entire  time.  There  is  three 
feet  thickness  of  quarry-broken  riprap  on  the  upper 
side  to  protedl  the  dam  from  acftion  of  the  waves. 
Where  the  creek  channel  passes  under  the  dam  a  semi- 
circular arch  rests  on  bed-rock  to  carry  off  any  sudden 


RE)SERVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  I05 

rise  which  might  have  occurred  during  construdlion, 
and  also  to  provide  room  for  the  pipes  to  the  basin 
below.  This  arch  is  built  solid,  full  of  concrete  near 
the  upper  end,  at  the  same  time  walling  in  the  pipes. 
From  the  opening  to  the  arch  and  extending  upward 
there  is  a  well  for  the  purpose  of  taking  the  supply  at 
any  desired  level,  thus  relieving  any  strain  at  the  con- 
duit, and  serving  also  as  a  manhole. 

Silting  of  Reservoirs. — One  of  the  most  common 
drawbacks  to  water  storage  in  large  reservoirs  is  the 
constantly  accumulating  mass  of  sand  and  silt  settling 
at  the  bottom,  and  modern  science  is  as  yet  deficient  in 
completely  eradicating  the  trouble.  It  has  been  pro- 
posed to  sluice  out  such  material  by  providing  large 
openings  from  the  reservoir  and  occasionally  allowing 
a  great  volume  of  water  to  rush  out  and  carry  the 
colle<5led  material  with  it.  This  method  has  been  suc- 
cessfully employed  in  diverting  dams  for  keeping  open 
the  approaches  to  the  headgates  of  canals.  It  is  also 
extensively  employed  in  cleansing  reservoirs  in  Spain. 
Experience  has  shown,  however,  that  only  a  compara- 
tively small  area  is  cleaned  by  this  method,  reaching 
on  a  steep  grade  for  only  a  moderate  distance  above 
the  scouring  sluices.  For  clearing  a  reservoir  several 
miles  long  it  is  manifestly  inadequate  and  must  be  sup- 
plemented by  something  else.  Another  method  of 
counteradling  the  tendency  of  the  reservoir  to  fill  is  by 
enlarging  its  capacity.  This  method  is  not  always 
possible.  Where  feasible  it  is  always  expensive,  and 
so  far  from  being  a  solution  of  the  problem,  merely 
postpones  the  date  when  some  means  must  be  adopted 
for  cleaning  out  the  impounded  silt.     It  may,  however, 


I06  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

in  some  cases  be  advisable,  where  the  expense  is  not 
too  great,  to  raise  the  dam  higher  and  thus  increase 
the  velocity  of  the  water' used  in  sluicing  out  the  silt. 
This  will  increase  the  efficiency  of  that  means  of 
cleansing  the  reservoir. 

The  removal  of  the  accumulated  debris  by  the 
ordinary  methods  of  excavation  is  clearly  out  of  the 
question.  No  community  in  the  world  can  afford  to 
pay  for  an  acre- foot  of  storage  capacity  for  the  purpose 
of  irrigation  any  sum  approaching  the  cost  of  an  acre- 
foot  of  excavation  by  ordinary  methods.  A  plan  is 
suggested,  however,  which  might  be  applied,  and  when 
properly  adapted  to  the  topography  and  hydrography 
of  the  locality  would  be  effedlive  at  reasonable  expense: 
A  small  water  supply  is  to  be  obtained  at  considerable 
head  over  the  reservoir  site,  either  by  diverting  the 
stream  at  a  distance  above  the  reservoir  or  by  storing 
waters  in  a  small  reservoir  on  the  stream  or  some  of  its 
tributaries  and  carrying  them  in  pipes  or  flumes  above 
the  upper  edge  of  the  reservoir  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
dam.  At  points  along  the  side  of  the  reservoir  which 
are  topographically  favorable,  preferably  upon  ridges 
jutting  out  into  the  lake,  hydraulic  giants  are  to  be 
provided  to  a<5t  under  the  head  of  water  furnished  by 
the  pipe-line.  I^arge  sluiceways  are  to  be  provided  near 
the  dam,  and  at  such  times  as  the  reservoir  happens  to  be 
empty  these  sluiceways  are  to  be  opened  to  their  full 
capacity  and  the  deposited  material  hydraulicked  out, 
as  in  hydraulic  mining.  The  material,  being  mostly 
fine  and  freshly  deposited,  would  wash  easily  and  rap- 
idly and  be  carried  by  the  stream  out  of  the  reservoir 
through  the  sluice-gates.      This  water  need  not  be 


R^SEJRVOIRS  AND   PONDS.  I07 

wasted,  but  could  be  diverted  below  for  purposes  of 
irrigation. 

Such  works  and  methods  would,  of  course,  be 
expensive,  but  on  the  other  hand  their  effe(5liveness  is 
unquestionable  and  it  is  believed  to  be  by  far  the  most 
feasible  method  yet  proposed  for  cleaning  a  large 
reservoir.  The  tendency  of  an  economical  use  of  this 
method  would  be  to  keep  the  reservoir  open  in  its 
lower  part,  where  it  is  deepest,  and  allow  the  shallow 
portions  along  the  edges  and  at  the  upper  end  to 
remain  filled.  This  would  contradl  the  relative  area  of 
water  surface  and  diminish  evaporation,  which  would 
in  a  measure  compensate  for  the  destruction  of  storage 
capacity.  The  use  of  the  three  methods — first,  the 
employment  of  one  or  more  large  scouring  sluices; 
second,  the  enlargement  of  the  reservoir  to  the  prac- 
ticable limit;  and,  third,  the  construdlion  of  works  and 
the  adoption  of  hydraulic  operations — would  in  many 
cases  insure  the  perpetuity  of  great  storage  reservoirs 
in  this  country  within  practicable  limits  of  expense. 
Certain  it  is  that  some  efficient  method  or  methods 
for  this  purpose  must  be  employed.  Where  feasible, 
storage  reservoirs  can  be  construdled  in  side  canons  or 
other  basins  having  no  considerable  natural  drainage 
tributary  to  them,  the  water  being  carried  through 
artificial  conduits  from  the  streams,  the  waters  of  which 
it  is  desired  to  store.  Where  this  can  be  done  the 
danger  of  filling  the  reservoir  with  silt  can  be  easily 
averted.  Sand  boxes  can  be  construdled  along  the 
supply  ditch  and  be  easily  operated  in  such  manner  as 
to  effe(5lually  clear  the  waters  of  the  load  of  solid 
matter.    Inasmuch  as  the  surplus  waters  are  discharged 


lo8  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

in  sudden  floods  of  enormous  volume,  and  in  order  to 
impound  them  or  any  considerable  percentage  of  them 
by  this  method,  not  only  must  strong  diversion  works 
be  provided  for  diverting  them,  but  a  conduit  must  be 
construdled  of  enormous  capacity.  Modern  sand  gates 
and  silters  are  described  in  the  foregoing  chapter. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
PIPES   FOR   IRRIGATION    PURPOSES. 


EOPI.K  who  have  plenty  of  money  and  little 
water  will  find  that  the  employment  of  pipes 
will  enable  them  to  use  whatever  water  they 
have  to  the  best  advantage.  The  use  of  pipe- 
lines for  conveying  water,  in  the  place  of  ditches  or 
flumes,  has  increased  much  since  the  introdu(5lion  of 
certain  cheaper  forms  of  pipe.  In  the  west  pipes  of 
wood  banded  with  iron  are  extensively  used,  as  are  also 
pipes  of  spiral,  riveted,  or  welded  iron  or  steel.  The 
latter  combine  great  strength  with  lightness  and 
economy.  Where  waters  can  be  forced  under  heavy 
pressure  the  use  of  surface  pipe-lines  of  light  pipe  will 
find  a  broad  field  of  usefulness  and  should  receive  such 
consideration  as  its  merits  deserve,  especially  where 
the  work  of  construdting  ditches  or  flumes  is  of  any 
special  magnitude.  A  large  pipe-line  is  intended  to 
take  the  place  of  a  main  ditch  or  flume  and  not  of  the 
distributing  laterals.  The  advantage  of  a  pipe-line 
over  a  ditch  lies  in  the  fadl  that  the  water  supply  is 
not  reduced  by  seepage  or  evaporation,  and  the  duty  of 
a  reservoir  is  thereby  increased.  The  area  of  surface 
occupied  by  the  pipe-line  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  the 
space  occupied  by  the  ditch  and  embankments,  and 
thus  the  area  subje(5l  to  cultivation  is  increased.     The 

cost  of  maintenance  is  less,  for  a  pipe-line  will  need  but 

log 


no  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

little  attention,  whereas  ditches,  however  well  they 
may  be  made,  will  require  an  annual  overhauling.  The 
advantage  over  a  flume  lies  in  the  facfl  that  evaporation 
and  leakage  are  done  away  with.  It  is  here  assumed 
that  a  pipe  connec5ls  with  a  well  or  fountainhead,  as 
otherwise  there  could  be  no  pressure  upon  the  pipe  and 
it  would  vStand  in  relation  to  delivery  on  a  plane  with 
the  ditch  or  flume.  If  the  line  is  accommodated  to  the 
surface  and  there  is  any  inverted  or  downward  bend  in 
the  pipe,  there  should  be  a  valve  set  at  the  lowest 
point  to  provide  for  the  emptying  or  draining  of  the 
pipe  during  cold  weather,  or  for  repairs.  The  pipe 
may  be  laid  on  or  near  the  surface  on  low  supports  of 
such  form  and  material  as  circumstances  may  suggest. 
The  matter  of  grade  is  of  little  importance,  for  the 
water  being  forced  will  run  up  hill  as  well  as  down, 
and  a  pipe  may  be  laid  to  the  natural  grade  of  the  sur- 
face and  deliver  water  on  a  level  with  the  fountain- 
head. 

Pressure  of  Pipes. — For  the  purpose  of  consider- 
ing the  pressure  we  will  divide  the  classes  of  pipes 
into  three  kinds  :  low-pressure  pipes,  medium-pres- 
sure pipes  and  high-pressure  pipes.  By  low-pressure 
pipes  we  mean  those  which  are  not  required  to  with- 
stand any  greater  pressure  than  that  occasioned  by  the 
gravity  flow  of  water  through  them,  with  the  addition 
of  a  few  feet  if  necessary.  We  will  designate  as 
medium-pressure  pipes  those  which  are  able  to  with- 
stand a  pressure  of  fifty  pounds  to  the  square  inch  with 
safety,  and  as  high-pressure  pipes  those  which  can 
safely  resist  a  pressure  of  120  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.     Pipes  made  of  riveted  sheet  iron  or  steel  No.  16, 


PIPES    FOR    IRRIGATION   PURPOSES.  Ill 

vitrified  clay  or  cement,  are  classified  as  low-pressure 
pipes ;  those  made  of  riveted  sheet  iron  or  steel  No.  14, 
or  of  wooden  staves  banded  with  wrought  iron,  are 
classified  as  medium-pressure  pipes  ;  and  those  made 
of  sheet  iron  or  steel  No.  12,  or  of  cast  iron,  are  classi- 
fied as  high-pressure  pipes.  While  these  classifications 
corredlly  separate  the  different  kinds  of  pipe  into  classes 
on  the  basis  of  their  ability  to  resist  pressure,  still  there 
is  also  a  difference  between  the  various  kinds  of  pipe 
belonging  to  each  class.  In  low-pressure  pipes  sheet- 
iron  or  steel  is  the  strongest,  vitrified  clay  the  next 
strongest,  and  cement  the  weakest.  In  medium-pres- 
sure pipes  sheet-iron  or  steel  is  the  stronger  and  wooden 
pipe  the  weaker,  while  in  high-pressure  pipes  cast-iron 
is  stronger  than  sheet-iron  or  steel  pipe.  The  judg- 
ment or  skill  of  the  person  in  charge  must  always  be 
exercised  in  choOvSing  a  pipe  suitable  for  each  case,  as 
no  inflexible  rule  can  be  laid  down  which  does  not  vary 
with  the  conditions  met. 

Grades  of  Iron  Pipe. — There  is  virtually  no 
difference  in  the  prices  of  iron  and  steel  piping. 
Wrought  iron  is  more  rigid,  making  a  pipe  less  likely 
to  become  dented  or  flattened  by  external  pressure,  and 
more  porous,  which  allows  the  particles  of  asphalt 
coating  both  to  enter  and  become  assimilated,  as  it 
were,  with  the  iron  ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  less 
strong  to  resist  an  internal  pressure,  and  is  likely  to 
scale  while  being  bent,  which  may  prevent  a  perfedl 
coating.  The  greater  strength  of  steel  can  seldom  be 
utilized  except  under  high  pressures,  on  account  of  its 
liability  to  collapse,  but  its  smooth  surface  without 
scales  or  other  defedts  is  an  advantage.     As  toughness 


112 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


FIG.  22 — RIVETED   IRON   PIPE. 


and  malleability  are  more  to  be  desired  than  great 
tensile  strength,  it  is  customary  to  specify  that  the 
plates  in  either  iron  or  steel  shall  be  annealed;  in  other 
words,  heated  to  a  cherry,  red  in  a  close  oven  and  then 
slowly  cooled,  or  what  is  better,  cooled  in  lime  or  oil. 
In  this  country  riveted  pipes  come  in  sheets  three 
to  three  and  one-half  feet  in  width  and  of  various 
lengths.     These  sheets  after  being  sized  and  punched 

in  multiple  punch- 
ing -  machines  are 
bent  around  rollers 
to  the  required  size, 
taking  care  that  the 
grain  of  the  iron  or 
steel  shall  lie  around 
the  pipe.  These 
short  cylinders  are 
then  double-riveted  along  the  straight  seam,  using  a 
good  quality  of  Swedish  or  Norway  iron.  By  means 
of  traveling  cranes  and  numerous  supports  seven  or 
eight  of  the  short  lengths  are  afterward  continuously 
riveted,  making  a  secflion  of  completed  pipe  of  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  long.  A  sedlion  of  this  pipe 
may  be  seen  in  Fig.  22. 

Only  one  row  of  rivets  is  inserted  in  the  end  or 
round  seams,  and  the  joint  is  made  by  expanding  one 
end  by  means  of  specially  devised  machinery,  by 
accomplishing  the  same  objedl  in  riveting,  or  by  mak- 
ing an  equal  number  of  large  and  small  cylinders  so 
that  the  end  of  the  smaller  can  be  driven  into  the  end 
of  the  larger  and  riveted. 

Spiral  iron  pipe,  shown  in  Fig.  23,  is  made  in  much 


PIPES  FOR   IRRIGATION   PURPOSES. 


113 


the  same  way,  and  some  advantages  are  claimed  for  it 
by  manufa(5lurers. 

Laminated  Iron  Pipe.  In  California  twenty 
years  ago  the  irrigators  used  plain  sheet-iron  pipes, 
which  soon  corroded  so  badly  that  they  were  worn-out 
completely  and  had  to  be  taken  up.  The  life  of  a 
sheet-iron  pipe  depends  on  its  coating,  and  without 
some  protection  against  oxidation  the  shell  of  the  pipe 
will  soon  be  consumed  by  rust.  Wrought-iron  lami- 
nated asphalted  pipes  are  made  of  two  shells  of  sheet 
iron.     These  shells  are  made  of  one  sheet  of  iron  eight 


FIG.   23 — SPIRAL    IRON    PIPE. 


feet  long,  rolled  and  lapped  one  inch,  and  united  by  a 
composition  solder.  They  are  half  the  thickness  of 
iron  that  would  be  necessary  for  the  ordinary  sheet- 
iron  pipe.  The  inner  shell  is  telescoped  into  the  outer 
shell  while  immersed  in  hot  asphalt  especially  pre- 
pared, giving  a  thickness  between  the  sheets  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  or  more  if  desired,  thus  making  an 
impassable  barrier  to  corrosion  from  outside  or  inside. 
The  outside  and  inside  coatings  are  also  substantial. 
This  produces  a  solid  shell  eight  feet  long  with  an 
inner  surface  free  from  all  excrescences.  The  pipe  is 
also  made  double,  of  one  sheet,  by  rolling  a  sheet  that 
is  twice  the  width  of  the  single  sheet  until  the  edges 
will  lap  with  a  thickness  of  iron  between  them.    The 


114  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

lap  is  riveted.  This  is  dipped  in  asphalt,  but  it  cannot 
have  the  intermediate  lamina-  of  asphalt,  which  is  the 
main  advantage  of  the  laminated  over  the  single  sheet- 
iron  pipe.  Both  these  descriptions  of  pipes  are  jointed 
end  to  end,  an  inner  sleeve  being  fixed  in  the  shop. 
In  laying,  the  end  is  dipped  in  hot  asphalt  and  an 
outer  sleeve  is  also  dipped  and  pressed  on  by  a  clamp 
over  the  joint  until  the  asphalt  is  set.  Bends  and 
branches  are  of  cast  iron,  as  in  the  ordinary  sheet-iron 
pipe,  and  the  joints  are  made  with  cement. 

Steel  Pipe. — Owing  to  freight  charges  cast-iron 
pipe  is  pradlically  barred  in  the  western  countries,  and 
the  steel  pipe  is  fast  superseding  it  as  well  as  all  forms 
of  iron  pipe.  The  present  price  of  steel  is  rather  less 
than  that  of  iron,  and  since  steel  suitable  for  this  class 
of  work  is  twenty  per  cent  stronger  than  the  best 
wrought-iron  there  is  no  good  reason  why  this  large 
saving  in  cost  should  not  be  made.  The  claim  that 
wet  soil  corrodes  steel  more  rapidly  than  it  does  iron 
does  not  seem  to  be  substantiated  by  experience.  Since 
there  are  so  many  grades  of  steel  and  there  is  so  great 
variety  in  the  methods  of  produdtion,  it  is  necessary  in 
order  to  secure  a  uniform  suitable  produdl  that  the 
specifications  be  unusually  specific  and  stringent,  that 
the  material  be  inspedled  at  the  mills,  and  that  the  ap- 
propriate tests  be  made  in  order  to  obtain  the  desired 
grade.  Steel  pipe  is  made  up  substantially  in  the 
same  way  as  described  under  foregoing  headings. 

Vitrified  Clay  Pipe. — The  materials  employed 
and  the  mode  of  manuf adluring  clay  pipe  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  those  of  pressed  brick.  Suitable  clay 
mixed  with  loam  is  first  ground  dry,  then  moistened 


PIPES   FOR   IRRIGATION   PURPOSES. 


115 


and  toughened,  in  which  state  it  is  placed  by  machinery 
into  the  pipe  molds  and  subjedled  to  a  pressure  of  at 
least  350  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  After  being 
pressed  the  lengths  are  allowed  a  week  or  longer  to 
dry,  when  they  are  removed  to  the  kiln,  stacked  verti- 
cally with  the  spigot  ends  down,  kiln-burned  for  four 
or  more  days,  and,  when  properly  burned,  very  grad- 
ually and  slowly  cooled.  The  glassy  coating  which 
modern  clay  pipes  possess  is  due  to  the 
sprinkling  of  salt  over  the  heated  pipe 
in  the  kiln  at  the  close  of  the  burning. 
Owing  to  the  application  of  common 
salt  and  to  the  high  temperature  used 
in  burning,  common  clay  pipe  is  now 
termed  salt-glazed  vitrified  pipe.  Fig. 
24  shows  a  joint  of  vitrified  pipe.  In 
laying  this  kind  of  pipe  the  joints  are 
fitted  in  the  collars,  and  these  are  made 
to  rest  on  solid  ground  or  are  placed 
upon  blocks  of  stone  or  wood.  The 
lengths  are  usually  two  feet  and  the 
pipe  is  calculated  to  stand  the  pressure  of  a  dray  team 
with  heavy  load  passing  over  it.  A  common  sort  of 
clay  or  cement  pipe  is  made  the  same  as  the  vitrified, 
but  is  not  glazed  and  is  not  so  lasting.  To  make  this 
pipe  porous,  sawdust  is  mixed  with  the  clay  and  is 
burned  out  during  the  baking  process. 

The  matters  which  principally  require  attention  in 
vitrified  and  cement  pipes  are  leaks  at  joints,  removing 
roots  from  the  inside  of  pipes,  replacing  cracked  pipes 
and  doing  the  necessary  earthwork,  with  the  addition 
of  replacing  worn-out  pipes  in  the  case  of  *the  latter. 


FIG.   24. 
VITRIFIED    PIPE. 


Ii6 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


The  cement  pipes  being  softer  and  more  porous  than 
the  vitrified  are  more  subjedl  to  these  troubles,  and 
consequently  their  cost  of  maintenance  is  much  greater. 
An  average  cement  pipe  will  last  not  to  exceed  eight 
years,  but  the  vitrified  kind  will  last  a  lifetime,  and  is 
certainly  much  cheaper  in  the  end. 

The  Asbestine  System. — This  is  a  method  of 
piping  devised  by  a  California  man  named  E.  M. 
Hamilton,  and  is  used  exclusively  in  sub-irrigation. 

It  consists  of  a 
continuous  pipe 
made  of  a  combi- 
nation of  Portland 
cement,  lime,  sand 
and  gravel,  laid  at 
a  depth  of  two  feet 
or  so  below  the 
surface  of  the 
ground,  parallel  to 
the  rows  of  trees  or  vines  in  an  orchard  or  vineyard. 
In  these  pipes  on  the  upper  side  is  inserted  a  nipple 
opposite  each  tree  or  vine,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  or 
so  in  diameter,  through  which  the  water  finds  exit. 
Each  plug  is  surrounded  by  a  length  of  larger  stand- 
pipe  setting  loosely  on  top  of  the  distributing  pipe, 
open  at  the  bottom  and  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  dirt  away 
from  the  outlet  and  rendering  it  accessible  at  all 
times  for  inspedlion.  The  pipes  are  connecfted  with 
mains  leading  from  a  reservoir.  The  water  finds  its 
way  through  all  the  outlets,  filling  the  stand-pipes  and 
slowly  percolating  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.     The 


FIG.  25 — ASBESTINE    PIPE   MACHINE. 


PIPES  FOR   IRRIGATION   PURPOSES.  II 7 

trenches  for  this  system  should  be  dug  two  feet  deep 
and  sixteen  inches  wide,  and  the  pipe  itself  is  laid  by 
a  patented  machine  shown  in  Fig.  25,  which  also 
illustrates  the  manner  of  laying. 

The  material  used  is  Portland  cement,  dry-slaked 
lime  free  from  lumps,  and  perfedlly  clean  sand.  The 
proportion  is  seven  parts  sand,  one  part  cement,  and 
one  part  lime.  One  barrel  of  cement  and  one  of  lime 
with  a  proportionate  amount  of  sand  will  make  350 
feet  of  two-inch  pipe.  The  stuff  is  mixed  as  the  work 
progresses  and  is  put  into  the  hopper  of  the  machine 


FIG.    26 — SIDE   VIEW    OF    STAVE    PIPE. 

by  the  shovelful.  The  operator  works  the  lever  for- 
ward and  back,  and  as  he  does  so  the  whole  machine 
moves  along  a  notch  at  a  time,  and  leaves  the  com- 
pleted string  of  pipe  in  its  wake. 

Wooden  Stave  Pipes. — For  low  pressures  and 
large  diameters  wooden  stave  pipe  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. It  supplies  a  long- felt  want  between  the 
grade  pipes  such  as  vitrified  clay  and  cement,  and  the 
pressure  pipes  such  as  riveted  steel  or  wrought  iron. 
Sec5lional  views  are  given  in  Figs.  26  and  27. 


Il8  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

The  walls  of  the  pipe  are  formed  of  longitudinal 
staves  braced  together  with  iron  or  steel  bands.  These 
are  shaped  to  cylindrical  forms  and  on  the  edges  to 
true  radial  lines,  so  that  when  put  together  they  form 
a  perfe(5lly  cylindrical  pipe.     The  flat  edges  of  the 


FIG.    27 — CROSS-SECTION    OF    STAVE    PIPE. 

staves  are  essential  to  enable  the  empty  pipe  to  resist 
the  pressure  from  the  overlying  earth.  To  join  the 
ends  of  the  staves  a  thin  metallic  tongue  is  inserted, 
which  being  a  trifle  longer  than  the  width  of  the  stave, 
cuts  into  the  adjoining  ones.  This  joint  is  very  tight 
and  easy  to  make.  The  confining  bands  are  of  round 
or  flat  iron,  or  steel,  of  from  three-eighths  to  three- 
fourths  inches  in  diameter.     As  shipped  from  the  ^fac- 


PIPES   FOR   IRRIGATION  PURPOSES. 


119 


tory  they  are  straight  and  provided  on  one  end  with  a 
square  head  and  on  the  other  with  a  thread  and  nut. 
They  are  bent  on  the  ground  on  a  bending  table  and 
coated  with  mineral  paint,  or  asphalt  varnish,  and  are 


FIG.    28 — STAVE    PIPE-LINE   IN   POSITION. 


cut  about  six  inches  longer  than  the  outside  circum- 
ference of  the  pipe,  on  which  they  are  slipped  loose. 
The  ends  are  joined  by  means  of  a  closed  iron  screw, 
which  fits  close  upon  the  pipe  and  provides  a  shoulder 
for  the  head  and  nut.  These  bands  are  placed  at 
varying  distances  apart,  according  to  pressure  which 
the  pipe  is  required  to  bear.     The  staves  break  joints 


I20  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

SO  as  to  form  a  continuous  pipe,  which  leaves  no  ob- 
stru<5lion  to  the  flow  of  water.  The  beauty  of  this 
system  is  that  it  is  made  on  the  ground,  and  the  work- 
men do  not  have  to  be  especially  experienced. 

It  is  always  economy  to  purchase  the  staves  already 
dressed,  and  thereby  save  in  freight  charges.  In  con- 
tra<5ling  for  such  materials,  the  specifications  should 
call  for  sound,  well-seasoned,  close  and  straight  grained 
lumber,  free  from  all  knots,  worm-holes,  season  checks, 
sap-wood,  splints,  or  other  like  defedls,  and  cut  from 
live  trees.  In  piping,  ranging  in  diameter  from  eigh- 
teen inches  to  three  or  four  feet,  the  staves  are  usually 
prepared  from  carefully  sele(5led  2x6  joists,  and  this 
joist  when  dressed  will  make  a  stave  about  five  and 
five-eighths  inches  along  its  outer  arc,  and  about  one 
and  nine-sixteenths  inches  thick. 

In  laying  the  pipe  the  trench  is  usually  excavated 
at  least  eighteen  inches  wider  than  the  outer  diameter 
of  the  pipe,  to  provide  standing  room  for  the  work- 
men ;  the  number  of  staves  needed  to  form  the  pipe  are 
placed  in  piles  along  the  trench  and  a  foreman  with 
five  workmen  form  a  gang.  The  tools  used  by  a  gang 
are  a  twelve-pound  sledge,  an  oak  driver  banded  on 
one  end,  four  two-pound  hammers,  two  chisels,  four 
crank  wrenches,  two  inside  forms  of  coiled  gas-pipe, 
and  two  outside  U-shaped  forms  of  the  same  material. 
A  completed  line  of  stave  pipe  with  an  abandoned 
flume  just  above  it  is  pictured  in  Fig.  28.  In  this  in- 
stance the  pipe  was  laid  above  ground,  as  can  just  as 
well  be  done  in  countries  where  the  winters  are  mild. 
The  capacity  of  a  thirty-inch  stave  pipe  is  computed 
on  thirty  inches  diameter  as  follows  : 


PIPES  FOR   IRRIGATION  PURPOSES. 


121 


Grade  or  fall  in 

Discharge  in 

Grade  or  fall  in 

Discharge   in    gal- 

feet per  1,000  ft. 

gallons  per  24  hours 

feet  per  1,000  ft. 

lons  per  24  hours 

0.10 

3,330,000 

3.0 

19,900,000 

0.15 

4,160,000 

5.0 

25,700,000 

0.30 

6,120,000 

80 

32,500,000 

0.50 

8,030,000 

10.0 

36,300,000 

0.80 

10,200,000 

16.0 

46,000,000 

1.0 

11,400,000 

20.0 

51,400.000 

Since  the  conception  of  this  book  the  author  has 
learned  of  an  entirely  new  material  for  the  construdlion 
of  water-pipes,  which  is  manufactured  in  Los  Angeles, 
California.  The  materials  are  wood  fiber  paper  and 
asphalt.  The  paper  is  reeled  off  while  passing  through 
melted  asphalt  at  a  temperature  of  over  400  degrees, 
wound  around  a  cylinder  and  subjected  to  great  pres- 
sure, making  it  very  hard.  It  is  constru<5led  in  sec- 
tions of  seven  feet.  These  pipes  are  made  with  diame- 
ters as  much  as  thirty  inches,  and  experts  have  said 
that  they  possess  all  the  essentials  for  a  first-class 
water-main  and  submain.  The  material  from  which 
these  pipes  are  made  imparts  no  flavor  or  odor  to  the 
water,  does  not  corrode  in  any  kind  of  soil,  is  abso- 
lutely impervious  to  moisture,  is  pra(5fically  imperish- 
able, and  is  not  affecfted  by  electrical  currents  which, 
as  is  well  known,  will  often  perforate  and  destroy  pipes 
of  any  thickness  made  of  iron.  The  cost  is  fully  one- 
half  less  than  metal  pipe,  and  being  very  light  there 
is  great  saving  in  its  transportation.  Sections  of  this 
asphalt  pipe  have  been  immersed  in  water  for  six 
months,  carefully  weighed  before  and  after  immersion, 
without  detec5ling  the  least  increase  in  weight,  thus 
showing  clearly  that   it   is   impervious  to  moisture. 


122 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


The  joints  are  connedledby  means  of  collars,  which  fit 
closely  over  and  around  the  ends  when  united. 

Cost  of  Pipes. — To  determine  the  capacity  of  any 
pipe  it  may  be  well  to  remember  that  twice  the  given 
diameter  increases  the  capacity  four  times.  The  fadlor 
of  first  cost  to  the  pipe,  while  it  is  undoubtedly  the 
one  requiring  the  least  labor  to  determine,  is  also  the 
most  difficult  to  arrive  at  with  exacftness.  Being  sub- 
ject to  commercial  laws  of  supply  and  demand,  trans- 
portation, competition,  etc.,  this  item  is  so  variable 
that  exa(5t  estimates  can  only  be  given  for  the  present, 
which  may  not  be  at  all  reliable  for  the  future.  It  will 
therefore  be  our  aim  to  present  estimates  of  cost  which 
may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  and  will  be  relatively 
correcfl  as  between  the  different  kinds  of  pipe.  With 
this  in  view  the  following  table  has  been  prepared, 
which  covers  the  sizes  and  kinds  of  pipe  heretofore 
principally  used  in  the  construdlion  of  piped  irrigation 
systems : 


1 

.8 

.8 

1 

t5 

Is 

*  v   ■ 

ii 

1 

■1 

1 

•1 

1 

6.   .   . 

$0.32 

$.41 

$0.52 

$0.72^ 

$0.16^ 

$0.12 

8 

.42 

.51 

.62 

1.04}^ 

.22 

.20 

10 

.53 

.60 

.85 

1.42 

.33 

.26 

12 

.63 

.68 

.98 

1.84 

AlH 

.32 

14 

.69 

.75 

1.17 

2.30 

.55* 

$0.74 

.38 

16 

.82 

.93 

1.25 

2.83 

;824 

94 

.45 

18 

.91 

1.00 

1.43 

8.37 

1.08 

.53 

20 

1.00 

1.14 

1.63 

3.97 

1.22 

.60 

22 

1.05 

1.30 

1.85 

4.62 

1.21 

1.32 

.68 

24.   .    . 

1.46 

2.00 

5.38 

1.37^ 

140 

.80 

CALlfOj 

CHAPTER  IX. 
FLUMES  AND  THEIR  STRUCTURE. 


¥p  LUMES  are  boxes  or  troughs  used  to  convey 
^  I  water  where  ditches  are  impradlicable,  or 
W^m.  needlessly  expensive  either  to  construdl  or  to 
maintain.  Where  a  ravine,  valley,  or  any 
considerable  depression  crosses  the  line  of  a  ditch  the 
water  may  be  turned  into  a  flume,  carried  over  the 
depression,  and  then  discharged  into  another  ditch  on 
the  further  side.  It  may  be  advisable  to  carry  the 
water  in  a  flume  over  loose  sandy  soil,  where  the  loss 
by  percolation  would  be  so  excessive  as  to  render  a 
sufficient  delivery  from  an  open  ditch  either  difficult  or 
impossible.  Special  forms  of  sheet-iron  or  other  sheet- 
metal  flumes  are  much  used  in  mountainous  sections 
because  of  their  lightness,  tightness  and  economy,  and 
the  facility  of  eredling  them  in  difficult  places.  As 
usually  construdled  flumes  are  merely  wooden  boxes 
open  at  the  top  and  of  such  size  and  strength  as  is 
necessary  to  carry,  and  support  the  water  supplied. 
Many  in  the  west  are  of  great  size  and  strength,  and 
traverse  great  distances  and  at  great  hights.  The 
grades  may,  if  necessary,  be  somewhat  lighter  and  the 
size  smaller  than  those  of  the  ditches  supplying  them, 
because  of  the  lesser  fricftion  and  the  greater  facility  of 
flow.  The  volume  of  water  to  be  carried  will  regulate 
the  size  the  same  as  in  the  ditches,  and  the  grade  will 
in  the  same  way  regulate  the  carrying  capacity  by 

123 


124  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

increasing  or  decreasing  the  mean  velocity  of  the 
current.  The  flume  box  may  be  made  of  two-inch 
plank,  selected  as  free  from  loose  knots  or  cracks  as 
possible.  If  a  small  box  is  needed  for  laterals  a  single 
plank  of  fourteen  to  eighteen  inches  will  do  for  the 
bottom  and  similar  ones  for  the  sides.  The  supports 
may  in  many  cases  be  a  single  line  of  heavy  fence 
posts,  which  may  be  had  in  lengths  as  great  as  twelve 
to  fourteen  feet.  The  butts  set  two  or  three  feet  into 
the  ground  and  well  tamped  give  a  good  foundation. 
When  greater  hights  than  ten  to  twelve  feet  are  met, 
a  trestle  of  timber  posts  properly  footed,  braced  and 
anchored  should  be  used.  The  planks  before  being 
spiked  together  may  be  painted  along  the  edges  in  con- 
tact with  a  coat  of  very  thick  paint.  This  will  not 
only  aid  in  making  a  water-tight  joint,  but  will  pre- 
serve the  wood  at  the  joint.  After  the  completion  of 
the  flume  go  over  all  of  the  joints  with  a  coat  of  thick 
paint  or  tar,  applied  with  an  old  stiff  brush.  A  small 
leak  may  often  be  stopped  by  filling  the  crack  with 
stiff  clay  or  mud. 

Curves  and  Grades.— Where  flumes  are  used  and 
pra(5licable,  they  are  set  on  a  heavier  grade  than 
canals — thirty  to  thirty-five  feet  to  the  mile  is  a  good 
rule — and  are  of  proportionally  smaller  area  than  canals 
with  lesser  grade.  They  should  be  construdled  in 
straight  lines  if  possible.  Curves  where  required  should 
be  carefully  set  out,  so  that  the  flume  may  discharge 
its  maximum  quantity.  In  the  ordinary  style  of  con- 
stru(5lion,  sills,  posts,  and  ties  support  and  strengthen 
the  work  at  every  four  feet.  The  posts  are  mortised 
into  the  ties  and  sills.    The  sills  extend  at  least  twenty 


FLUMES  AND  THEIR  STRUCTURE.  1 25 

inches  beyond  the  posts,  to  which  side  braces  are  nailed 
to  strengthen  the  strudlure.  Where  flumes  are  not 
supported  on  trestles,  but  rest  on  an  excavated  ledge, 
it  is  desirable  still  to  use  the  stringers,  which  should  be 
placed  just  outside  the  posts,  so  that  water  leaking 
from  the  sides  will  drop  clear  of  them.  Main  supports, 
such  as  trestles,  are  placed  eight  or  more  feet  apart. 
Planking  should  be  of  pine,  redwood,  or  hemlock. 
The  cross-secftion  of  a  flume  should  be  no  narrower  than 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  for  if  not  built  in  this  way 
there  would  necessarily  be  a  contra(ftion  that  would 
check  the  free  flow  of  water.  This  leads  to  the  question 
of  velocity.  The  best  flumes  are  built  with  a  vertical 
drop  of  from  two  to  four  feet  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
strucfture  and  these  drops  have  come  to  take  the  place 
of  the  inclined  aprons,  which  were  formerly  much  in 
vogue.  There  should  also  be  a  similar  drop  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  flume  to  make  a  water  cushion,  by 
which  the  velocity  is  broken  and. washing  out  is  pre- 
vented. Most  engineers  agree  that  the  more  velocity 
a  flume  has  without  dropping  the  grade  the  better  it 
will  be,  provided  arrangements  are  made  to  take  care 
of  the  water  at  the  discharge.  If  a  flume  is  narrowed 
in  toward  its  discharge  the  sides  should  be  raised  pro- 
portionately, in  order  to  provide  the  proper  carrying 
capacity  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  slopping  over. 
Construction. — There  are  wooden  and  iron  flumes, 
each  built  in  various  forms.  In  building  wooden 
flumes  they  are  so  superficial  at  best  that  they  should 
be  well  made  and  no  expense  should  be  spared  in  their 
construdlion.  The  best  material  only  should  be  used, 
and  the  writer  has  found  seasoned  and  surfaced  lum- 


126  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

ber  preferable  to  unseasoned  stuff.  It  is  best  to  tar 
or  creosote  well-seasoned  lumber,  and  painting  or 
tarring  green  material  is  to  be  discouraged,  as  it  only 
induces  decay  and  brings  on  disappointing  results. 
Tarring  may  be  done  in  vats  before  construdlion,  or  it 
may  be  done  afterward  by  using  mops  or  brushes. 
We  would  advise  in  the  latter  case  the  application  of 
boiling  hot  tar  on  the  inside  only  and  after  all  joints, 
seams  and  crevices  had  been  carefully  caulked  with 
oakum.  The  boxing  of  flumes  is  generally  of  three 
different  forms.  In  the  first  the  floor  is  built  dire(5lly 
on  stringers  and  the  planking  floor  placed  at  right 
angles  with  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  flume  or  the 
flow  of  the  water.  The  second  style  is  to  lay  floor 
beams  on  the  stringers,  bracing  them  at  intervals  so  as 
to  bear  the  water  pressure.  The  standards  and  floor 
beams  are  boxed  in  and  bolted  to  the  outside  braces, 
the  whole  forming  the  foundation  for  the  sheathing  or 
boxing.  The  third,  form,  employed  more  generally  on 
large  flumes,  consists  in  framing  the  floor  beams  and 
stringers  in  cross  yokes  to  receive  the  boxing. 

A  very  good  representation  of  a  flume  provided 
with  a  waste-gate  is  portrayed  in  Fig.  29.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  place  a  waste-gate  in  each  flume,  because 
the  struc5ture  furnishes  a  cheap  mode  of  introducing  an 
escape,  and  furthermore  it  is  desirable  to  be  able  to 
empty  the  canal  immediately  in  case  the  strudlure 
should  need  repair.  Where  flumes  are  built  on  trestles 
the  latter  are  usually  supported  on  piles,  though  in 
cases  where  the  bed  of  the  drainage  is  of  sufficiently 
firm  nature,  they. rest  simply  on  mudsills.  Suitable 
drains  and  wings  must  be  provided  at  both  ends  of  the 


128 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


flume.     Where  bench  flumes  are  construcfled  it  is  best 
to  make  the  bench  twice  as  wide  as  the  flume  in  order 
that  there  may  be  a  footway  alongside.    In  such  flumes 
the  foundation  is  simply  mudsills  and  cross-beams. 
In  sheathing  a  wooden  flume  it  is  best  to  use  large 


FIG.    30— FLUME  ACROSS   A   VALLEY. 


wire  nails  or  cut  spikes  for  the  floor,  but  the  sides 
should  be  fastened  with  bolts  through  inside  cleats  at 
the  joints.  If  nails  are  used  in  the  side  planking  they 
will  rot  out  and  it  will  be  found  impossible  to  keep  the 
planks  on. 

The  weak  spot  in  every  flume  is  at  either  end  where 


130  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

the  woodjvork  joins  upon  the  earth  orterreplein,  as  the 
case  may  be.  There  the  earth  should  be  carefully  pud- 
dled at  the  apron  and  the  whole  surface  from .  side  to 
side  of  the  ditch,  and  the  sides  as  well,  should  be  tamped 
and  retamped.  Retaining  walls  or  riprap  at  the  sides 
and  embracing  the  flaring  wings  may  be  employed,  but 
in  any  event  the  tamping  must  be  thoroughly  done  and 
the  work  gone  over  time  and  again  if  needs  be  in  order 
to  prevent  the  possibility  of  washing  out.  This  tamp- 
ing will  be  necessary  if  either  the  drop-box  or  the 
inclined  apron  be  used. 

The  bracing  of  a  flume  is  an  important  matter, 
especially  with  deep  flumes.  A  good  system  of  side 
bracing  is  depi(5led  in  the  bridge  flume  across  a  stream, 
and  shown  in  Fig.  31. 

Cross-sedlion  braces  are  often  made  with  iron  rods 
running  through  the  side  posts  and  tightened  with  nuts 
and  washers.  Any  builder  can  arrange  the  matter  of 
the  bracing  to  suit  himself. 

In  very  high  flumes  a  lofty  trestlework  may  be 
required.  If  this  is  the  case  it  is  better  to  build  the 
bents  in  se<5lions  on  the  ground  and  then  raise  them 
into  position  by  means  of  tackle-blocks  and  a  windlass, 
or  by  using  a  steam  hoisting  drum  if  the  same  may  be 
readily  obtained  without  much  expense.  -The  modus 
operandi  of  hoisting  these  great  trestle  se(ftions  is  clearly 
illustrated  in  Fig.  32,  which  is  a  scene  taken  by  photo- 
graph during  the  constru<5lion  of  a  high  flume  near  San 
Diego,  California.  As  a  general  rule  such  structures 
as  this  are  not  pradlicable. 

The  great  bench  flume  on  the  High-Line  canal  in 
Colorado   is   illustrated  in  Fig.  33.      This   flume    is 


132  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

twenty -eight  feet  wide,  seven  feet  deep,  and  is  set  on  a 
grade  of  from  five  to  eight  feet  to  the  mile,  its  total 
length  being  2,640  feet  and  its  capacity  1,184  second 
feet.  The  timbers  supporting  the  flooring  are  suffi- 
ciently heavy  and  abundant  to  render  the  work  sub- 
stantial, while  the  sills  supporting  it  are  well  braced 
and  framed.  The  side  braces  supporting  the  uprights 
are  peculiarly  and  expensively  housed  by  letting  them 
into  iron  castings  or  shoes  at  either  end.  These  shoes, 
bolted  to  the  woodwork  of  the  flume,  cannot  be  said  to 
have  increased  the  life  of  the  strudlure,  as  they  have 
caught  rain  or  leakage  water  and  have  thus  added 
greatly  to  the  deterioration  of  the  wood. 

Pluming  Across  a  River. — Another  notable 
flume  is  vShown  in  Fig.  34.  It  is  a  wooden  flume  across 
the  Pecos  river  in  New  Mexico.  The  bottom  of  this 
great  flume  is  40  feet  above  the  river-bed,  it  is  25  feet 
wide  in  the  clear,  8  feet  deep,  475  feet  long,  and  rests 
on  substantial  trestlework  with  spans  16  feet  in  length. 
Across  the  river-bed  this  flume  is  founded  on  cribs  drift- 
bolted  to  the  solid  bed-rock  of  the  river  and  filled  with 
rock.  The  abutments  of  this  flume  at  its  jundlion  with 
the  canal,  which  runs  on  top  of  the  terreplein,  con- 
sists of  wooden  wings  set  back  a  distance  of  12  feet 
into  the  earth,  well  braced,  and  supported  on  anchor 
piling  and  filled  with  earth.  The  planking  of  these 
wings  is  two  inches  in  thickness.  The  flume  rests  on 
five  sets  of  12  x  12  timbers  forming  each  bent  of  the 
trestle,  and  these  are  well  cross-braced.  On  them  rests 
a  cap  piece  12x12  inches,  and  on  this  are  ten  longi- 
tudinal stringers  16  feet  in  length,  extending  from  one 
bent  of  the  trestle  to  the  other.     These  stringers  are 


FIG.  33 — BENCH  FLUME  FOR  A  LARGE  CANAL, 


134  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

6x12  timber,  and  on  them  are  nailed  2-inch  floor 
planking  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  current.  The- 
side  bracing  of  the  flume  consists  of  6  x  8  scantling  8 
feet  in  length,  though  at  present  these  are  planked  for 
a  depth  of  only  5  feet,  giving  the  flume  that  available 
depth.  These  pieces  are  placed  4  feet  apart  between 
centers  and  are  braced  by  short  struts  at  each  bent  of 
the  trestle. 

The  Arc  Stave  Flume. — A  comparatively  new 
idea  is  the  arc  flume  which  is  being  used  quite  exten- 
sively throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  west  of 
the  Continental  Divide  and  along  the  Pacific  coast. 
This  flume  is  semicircular  in  shape,  and  is  formed  of 
redwood  or  pine  staves  bound  with  steel  bands,  fast- 
ened to  tie-beams  across  the  top.  The  staves  are 
quarter-sawed  from  2x6  inch  sticks.  The  tie-beams 
are  4x4  inches,  so  that  when  built  the  flume  is  a 
stiff,  water-tight,  half-round  trough,  supported  at  in- 
tervals of  eight  feet  by  wooden  saddles.  No  nails  are 
used  in  the  flume,  and  it  is  easily  and  cheaply  adjusted 
to  any  condition  of  humidity  by  means  of  nuts  at  the 
ends  of  the  iron  bands,  much  like  those  used  for  the 
circular  stave  pipes.  The  Mount  Nebo  Irrigation 
Company  in  Utah  is  using  this  system.  The  reservoir 
is  over  six  miles  long,  and  holds  more  than  a  bil- 
lioncubic  feet  of  w^ater.  The  dam  is  44  feet  high, 
330  feet  long,  and  no  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  A 
tunnel  140  feet  long,  through  solid  rock,  some  distance 
away  from  the  dam,  furnishes  an  outlet  for  the  reser- 
voir. In  conduc5ling  the  water  down  Currant  Creek 
Cafion  a  large  flume  crosses  on  high  trestle  work,  and 
some  distance  below  where  it  was  necessary  to  cross 


136 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


FIG.  35 — SIDE  VIEW  OF  SMALL  IRON  FLUME. 


the  canon  again,  the  water  is  conduc5led  through  an 
arc  pipe-line  2,000  feet  in  length.  There  is  nearly  one 
and  a  half  miles  of  this  pipe  and  flume,  and  .so  well 
was  the  work  done  that  when  the  water  was  turned  in 
to  the  full  capacity  scarcely  a  leak  was  seen  anywhere. 
Iron  Flumes. — One  of  the  greatest  obje(5lions  to 
the  use  of  wooden  irrigating  flumes  is  the  alternate 

shrinking  and 
swelling  of  the 
wood  and  the  con- 
sequent warping 
and  distortion  of 
the  strudlures.  To 
overcome  this  dif- 
ficulty, and  at  the 
same  time  to  provide  a  durable  substitute,  easy  of  trans- 
portation and  ere(5lion,  M.  H.  Laybourn,  of  New 
Windsor,  Colorado,  has  designed  and  patented  an  iron 
flume,  which  is  illustrated  herewith. 

Galvanized  iron  is  used  for  the  trough  of  the  flume, 
which  is  supported  in  va- 
rious ways,  according  to 
the  exigencies  of  the  case, 
but  generally  by  means  of 
cast-iron  brackets  placed 
on  timber  supports.  Fig. 
35  shows  a  small  flume, 
supported  on  single  posts. 
In  this,  as  in  other  cases, 
the  upper  edge  is  stiffened 
by  means  of  a  board  or 
plank,  which  also  provides 


FIG.    36 — END   VIEW    OF    SMALL 
IRON    FLUME. 


FLUMES   AND   THEIR   STRUCTURE. 


137 


a  means  of  fastening  the  flume  to  the  bracket.  Fig.  36 
shows  a  larger  flume  half -circular  in  secftion,  supported 
by  a  bracket  at  each  side  resting  on  horizontal  timber. 
In  both  these  cases  the  board  beneath  the  flume  may 
be  omitted,  but  it  aids  in  ere(?tion,  and  adds  stability 
to  the  stru(5lure.  The  smaller  sizes  do  not  have  riveted 
conne(5lions  between  joints,  and  therefore,  especially  in 


FIG.    37— CROSS-SECTION    OF   LARGE    IRON    FLUME. 


the  use  of  the  single  post  support,  may  be  easily  moved 
from  one  locality  to  another. 

The  general  shape  of  the  flumes  in  sedlion  is  para- 
bolic. Where  depth  is  restridled  and  the  volume  of 
water  to  be  carried  is  large,  the  type  shown  in  Fig. 
37  is  adopted,  the  sides  being  parabolic  and  the  bottom 
circular.  In  this  case  the  bottom  of  the  flume  is  sup- 
ported throughout  its  entire  length  by  plank  or  timber 
on  edge  let  down  into  the  sill  of  the  trestle  to  conform 
to  the  shape  of  the  flume. 

In  case  it  is  desired  iron  may  be  substituted  for  the 
timber  supports.      Figs.  38  and  39  show  how  admi- 


138 


IRRIGATION    FARMING. 


rably  this  form  of  flume  may  be  adapted  to  a  rough 
country  by  resting  one  end  of  the  sills  on  a  precipitous 
rock  wall  and  supporting  the  other  on  timbers,  or  by 
means  of  rods  and  eye-bolts  driven  into  an  overhanging 
cliff. 

Either    galvanized   iron,  black  iron,  or  asphalted 


FIG.    39 — FLUME    WITH     OVER- 
HANGING   SUPPORT. 


FIG.    38 — FLUME   ON    A    ROCKY 
LEDGE. 

sheet  iron  may  be  used  for  the  trough.  All  the  metal 
used  in  construdling  the  flume  is,  or  may  be  if  desired, 
shipped  with  it,  so  the  eredlion  is  very  easy. 

Siphons. — These  are  often  used  to  convey  a  ditch 
under  instead  of  over  a  depression  in  the  earth,  and 
may  aptly  be  called  an  inverted  box  flume,  into  which 
the  water  flows  at  the  upper  end  and  is  discharged  at  a 
somewhat  lower  level  on  the  other  side  of  the  ravine  or 
gulch.  The  same  materials  as  are  used  in  flumes  may  be 
employed,  and  the  only  extra  precaution  required  is  to 


FLUMES  AND   I'HEIR  STRUCTURE.  1 39 

have  them  well  bolted  or  provided  with  braces,  that  are 
keyed  as  tight  as  possible.  Iron  bolts  or  hasps  are 
best.  Cast-iron  pipes  of  sufficient  diameter  or  sheet- 
steel  tubes  may  be  used  with  favorable  results.  It 
should  not  be  forgotten,  when  deep  and  wide  depres- 
sions are  to  be  crossed,  that  the  Great  Archite(5l  of  the 
Universe,  in  providing  that  water  should  rise  to  its  own 
level,  has  done  away  with  the  necessity  for  tall  and 
costly  trestles.  The  Moors,  whose  works  still  remain 
as  a  witness  of  their  construdlive  skill,  understood  the 
use  of  this  beneficent  provision,  and  employed  it  in 
works  that  would  not  disgrace  an  engineer  of  the 
present  time. 


CHAPTER  X. 
DUTY    AND    MEASUREMENT    OF    WATER. 

N  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  land  which 
can  be  served  by  the  flowing  water  of  an  irri- 
gating season  and  by  the  storage  of  water  of 
the  non-irrigating  season,  it  is  necessary  to 
ascertain  the  quantity  of  water  which  should  be  used 
in  serving  a  definite  area  of  land.  This  is  called  by 
irrigation  engineers  the  duty  of  water,  which,  by  the 
way,  is  affe(5led  by  the  amount  of  rainfall,  the  artificially 
supplied  water  being  complementary  to  it.  It  is  also 
affedled  by  latitude,  altitude  and  other  climatic  con- 
ditions. It  is  further  affecfted  by  the  character  of  the 
soils,  and  finally  depends  largely  upon  the  kind  of  crops 
raised. 

In  the  storage  of  water,  in  order  to  determine  the 
amount  which  can  adlually  be  conserved  for  useful  pur- 
poses, it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  extent  and  the 
rate  of  evaporation  under  different  conditions  of  lati- 
tude, altitude  and  general  climate.  Local  condition, 
character  of  the  soil,  slope  of  the  land,  cultivation, 
humidity,  evaporation,  precipitation,  drainage  and 
capillary  a(5lion  are  so  widely  at  variance  in  different 
localities  that  there  is  small  hope  of  getting  any  formula 
which  will  admit  of  extended  application.  Crops  differ 
with  respedl  to  moisture  requirements.  For  example, 
oats  and  wheat  will  require  more  than  rye  and  barley, 
140 


DUTY  AND   MEASUREMENT   OF  WATER.  141 

and  buckwheat,  amber  cane  and  corn  still  less  than  the 
other  grains. 

In  Colorado,  water  rights  vested  on  a  basis  of  the 
low  duty  assigned  to  water  ten  years  ago  have,  in 
instances,  deteriorated  lands  and  reduced  their  produc- 
tiveness by  a  surfeit  in  application  ;  while  on  adjoining 
lands,  through  an  enforced  economy,  a  higher  duty, 
better  condition  of  the  soil  and  greater  produ<5liveness 
have  resulted .  Unskilled  labor  has  a  penalty  of  twenty- 
five  to  fifty  per  cent,  attached  to  it  in  the  application 
of  water,  and  unfortunately  this  class  is  too  prevalent 
in  the  irrigating  fields,  in  many  cases  no  other  being 
obtainable.  An  abundant  water-supply  tends  to  care- 
lessness in  its  application  and  consequent  waste.  On 
the  duty  of  water  depends  the  financial  success  of  every 
irrigation  enterprise,  for  as  water  becomes  scarce  its 
value  increases.  In  order  to  estimate  the  cost  of  irri- 
gation in  projec5ling  works,  it  is  essential  to  know  how 
much  water  the  land  requires.  In  order  to  ascertain 
the  dimensions  of  canals  and  reservoirs  for  the  irriga- 
tion of  given  areas,  the  duty  of  water  must  be  deter- 
mined. 

Numerical  Expression. — Before  considering  the 
numerical  expression  of  water  duty  the  standard  units 
of  measurement  should  be  defined.  For  bodies  of 
standing  water,  as  in  reservoirs,  the  standard  unit  is 
the  cubic  foot.  In  the  consideration  of  large  bodies  of 
water,  however,  the  cubic  foot  is  too  small  a  unit  to 
handle  conveniently  and  the  acre  foot  is  the  unit 
employed  by  irrigation  engineers.  This  is  the  amount 
of  water  which  will  cover  one  acre  of  land  one  foot  in 
depth,  and  that  is  43,560  cubic  feet.     In  considering 


142  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

running  streams,  as  rivers  or  canals,  the  expression  of 
volume  must  be  coupled  with  a  fadlor  representing  the 
rate  of  movement.  The  time  unit  usually  employed 
by  irrigation  engineers  is  the  second,  and  the  unit  of 
measurement  of  flov^^ing  w^ater  is  the  cubic  foot  a 
second,  or  the  second  foot  as  it  is  called  for  brevity. 
Thus  the  number  of  second  feet  flowing  in  a  canal  is 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  which  passes  a  given  point  in 
a  second  of  time.  The  cubic  foot  a  second  is  the  unit 
of  measurement  usually  adopted  in  the  distribution  of 
water  from  or  by  the  large  canals  of  Colorado.  A 
quantity  of  water  equivalent  to  a  continuous  flow  of 
one  cubic  foot  a  second,  during. the  irrigating  season  of 
one  hundred  days,  will  usually  irrigate  from  fifty  to 
sixty  acres  of  land.  It  will  often  do  more  than  this. 
Another  unit  still  generally  employed  in  the  west  is 
the  miner's  inch.  This  differs  greatly  in  different 
localities  and  is  generally  defined  by  state  statute.  In 
California  one  second  foot  of  water  is  equal  to  50  miner's 
inches,  while  in  Colorado  it  is  equivalent  to  38.4  miner's 
inches.  In  the  following  arrangement  are  given  a  few 
convertible  units  of  measure  : 

I  second  foot  =  450  gallons  a  minute. 

1  cubic  foot=  75  gallons  a  minute. 

I  second  foot  ==  2  acre  feet  in  24  hours— approximated. 

100  California  =  inches  4  acre  feet  in  24  hours. 

100  Colorado  inches  =  5}^  acre  feet  in  24  hours. 

I  Colorado  inch  =  17,000  gallons  in  24  hours. 

1  second  foot  =  59^  acre  feet  in  30  days. 

2  acre  feet  =  i  second  foot  a  day  or  .0333  second  feet  in  30  days. 

A  miner's  inch  is  supposed  to  define  the  quantity  of 
water  flowing  through  an  aperture  an  inch  square,  but 
as  in  some  parts  the  pressure  adopted  is  that  of  a  four- 


DUTY  AND   MEASURKMKNT   OF  WATER.  1 43 

inch  head,  while  in  other  places  the  head  is  six  inches, 
there  is  evidently  abundant  room  for  variation,  even  in 
the  determination  of  the  capacity  of  a  single  inch. 
When,  again,  a  number  of  inches  came  to  be  measured 
at  once,  it  became  possible  either  to  adopt  an  aperture 
one  inch  high  and  the  specified  number  of  inches  in 
length,  or  to  take  the  square  of  the  whole  number  of 
inches  as  giving  the  dimensions  of  the  orifice,  in  which 
case  there  is  another  great  cause  of  variation.  The 
State  Engineer  of  Colorado  has  calculated  that  the 
miner's  inch  has  been  .026  cubic  feet,  or,  roughly 
speaking,  a  fortieth  of  a  cubic  foot,  which  is  equivalent 
to  a  flow  of  nearly  nine  gallons  a  minute,  and  this  is  now 
generally  adopted,  though  as  a  matter  of  fadl,  in  more 
southerly  states  where  water  has  been  scarce,  the 
miner's  inch  has  only  meant  one-fiftieth  of  a  cubic 
foot. 

An  Irrigation  Head. — The  proper  wetting  of  the 
whole  ground  requires  what  is  known  as  an  irrigation 
head.  To  irrigate  ten  acres  with  a  miner's  inch  of 
water  needs  from  fifteen  to  thirty  inches  of  flow  at  a 
time,  depending  upon  the  porosity  of  the  soil.  A 
single  inch  flowing  constantly  and  used  in  that  way 
would  not  irrigate  over  two  acres  at  che  best,  and'gen- 
erally  not  over  one-half  an  acre  properly.  But  the  flow 
of  a  single  inch  without  any  reservoir  to  accumulate 
it  may  be  used  in  another  way  so  as  to  produce  fair  re- 
sults on  from  ten  to  forty  acres,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  the  kind  of 
trees — for  it  is  only  for  trees  that  it  can  be  used  to 
advantage.  It  would  hardly  pay  to  make  trenches 
around  grape-vines  on  any  large  acreage,  and  although 


144  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

some  berries,  vegetables,  and  other  small  stuff  may  be 
raised,  it  generally  takes  too  much  work  and  time  to 
water  a  large  area  of  them  in  that  way. 

The  farmer  who  sees  a  severe  drouth  broken  by  a 
three  hours'  flow  of  water  hardly  understands  that 
every  acre  of  his  farm  has  received  in  an  inch  of  irri- 
gation no  less  than  loo  tons  of  water,  or  loo  acres  has 
had  10,000  tons  of  water  poured  over  it.  The  quan- 
tity of  water  on  a  single  acre  by  such  irrigation  will 
be  not  less  than  130  cubic  yards.  A  little  wetting  of 
this  character  places  more  than  1,000  tons  in  twenty- 
four  hours  on  every  acre,  or  100,000  tons  on  a  100- 
acre  farm.  Now  an  average  irrigation  requires  a  five- 
inch  layer  of  water  over  an  entire  field,  while  some 
crops,  oats  for  instance,  often  demand  a  solid  covering 
of  ten  inches.  When  using  windmill  irrigation  in  a 
small  way  it  may  be  well  to  roughly  approximate  an 
acre  of  garden  or  orchard  as  requiring  1,000  barrels  of 
water  for  an  ordinary  wetting,  but  in  this  the  greatest 
economy  is  necessary,  and  it  is  best  to  apply  the  water 
by  the  rill  or  row  method.  The  following  figures  will 
give  an  idea  of  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  prop- 
erly irrigate  a  definite  area  of  land  in  a  humid  climate, 
such  as  that  of  the  central  and  eastern  states  :  There 
are  6,272,640  square  inches  to  an  acre.  One  inch  of 
water  or  a  stream  one  inch  wide  and  one  inch  deep, 
flowing  at  a  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  will  give  6,082,- 
560  inches  in  twenty-four  hours.  Such  a  stream  will 
therefore  cover  nearly  an  acre  one  inch  deep  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  would  require  about  25,920  gallons 
or  823  barrels  of  water. 

Advantage  of  Large  Heads. — A  full  head  of 


DUTY  AND   MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER.  1 45 

water  divided  into  four  canals  flowing  a  mile  an  hour 
will  run  two  and  a  half  miles  in  the  same  time  if  car- 
ried through  one  canal.  The  seepage  of  a  full  head  of 
water  distributed  through  four  canals  is  three  and  a 
half  times  as  much  as  when  held  in  one  body.  The 
evaporation  is  six  times  as  much  when  divided 
into  four  parts  as  when  held  in  one  body.  This 
comes  from  the  fadl  that  a  small  stream  becomes  much 
more  heated  than  a  large  one.  The  small  one  runs 
slowly,  while  a  heavy  body  flows  fast.  Then  there 
are  four  surfaces  instead  of  one  exposed  to  sun  and 
wind.  The  waste  of  water  running  through  four 
canals  or  ditches  is  very  great.  If  a  fifty-inch  flow  of 
water  will  cover  one-quarter  of  an  acre  an  hour  100 
inches  will  cover  three-quarters  of  an  acre  in  an  hour, 
200  inches  two  acres  in  an  hour,  and  400  inches  five 
acres  in  an  hour.  The  difference  in  irrigating  five 
acres  an  hour  and  irrigating  one-quarter  of  an  acre  in 
an  hour  is  that  the  former  requires  two  strong  men 
while  in  the  latter  case  a  boy  only  is  needed.  A  full 
head  will  irrigate  evenly,  but  a  small  stream  will  soak 
the  upper  end,  while  the  lower  end  is  yet  dry.  Some 
writers  have  thought  to  remedy  this  matter  by  giving 
each  canal  its  water  in  bulk  by  the  hour  instead  of  a 
small  constant  flow.  The  canal  running  full  capacity 
so  many  hours  a  given  length  of  time  would  thus 
give  each  user  a  full  head  for  all  the  hours  of  his  time. 
Furthermore,  a  man  when  he  knows  he  is  going  to  get 
a  good  head  of  water  in  time  of  scarcity  will  clean  out 
his  ditches  and  be  fully  prepared  for  the  water  when 
it  comes.  To  do  this,  however,  in  most  of  the  west- 
ern states  would  require  the  substitution  of  new  laws 


146  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

governing  the  rights  of  appropriation  from  public 
streams. 

The  California  Standard. — The  most  economic 
users  of  water,  in  America  at  least,  are  the  CaHforni- 
ans,  as  their  necessities  are  reduced  on  account  of  a 
limited  water-supply.  At  Riverside  they  use  an  inch 
of  water  to  five  acres,  and  some  an  inch  to  three  acres. 
But  this  is  because  they  charge  to  the  land  all  the 
waste  on  the  main  ditch  and  because  they  use  thirty 
per  cent,  of  the  water  in  July  and  August,  when  it  is 
the  lowest.  But  this  is  no  test  of  the  duty  of  water  ; 
the  amount  adlually  delivered  on  the  land  should  be 
taken.  What  they  adlually  use  for  ten  acres  at  River- 
side, Redlands,  etc.,  is  a  twenty-inch  head  of  three 
days'  run  five  times  in  the  year,  equal  to  300  inches 
for  one  day,  or  one  inch  steady  run  for  300  days.  As 
an  inch  is  the  equivalent  of  365  inches  one  day,  or  one 
inch  for  365  days,  300  inches  for  one  day  equals  an 
inch  to  twelve  acres.  Many  use  even  less  than  this, 
running  the  water  only  two  or  two  and  one-half  days 
at  a  time.  Others  use  more  head,  but  it  rarely  exceeds 
twenty-four  inches  for  three  days  and  five  times  a  year, 
which  would  be  seventy- two  multiplied  by  five,  or  360 
inches,  a  little  less  than  a  full  inch  for  a  year  for  ten 
acres.  In  summing  up,  we  may  say  that  the  duty  of 
water  in  Southern  California  may  be  put  at  an  average 
of  one  inch  to  eight  acres,  and  the  cost  of  water  at  a 
first  charge  of  $35  to  $60  an  acre  for  the  right,  and  a 
further  charge  of  $1.50  to  $2.50  an  acre  per  annum 
for  the  water  whether  used  or  not. 

Evaporation. — Throughout  the  arid  region  of  the 
United   States  the   conditions   which   determine   the 


DUTY   AND   MEASUREMENT  OF   WATER.  1 47 

amount  of  evaporation  are  exceedingly  variable,  and  it 
ranges  from  a  probable  minimum  of  20  inches  to  a 
probable  maximum  of  105  inches  per  annum.  If  water, 
therefore,  be  stored  in  artificial  lakes,  where  evapora- 
tion is  but  20  inches  a  year,  a  very  small  amount  of 
water  is  thus  lost,  but  if  it  be  stored  where  the  evapo- 
ration reaches  the  amount  of  100  inches  a  year  the  water 
loss  is  very  great.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  the 
ac5lual  application  of  water  unnecessary  slowness  of  flow 
induces  increased  evaporation  and  absorption,  and 
hence  it  is  that  in  the  flooding  system  the  quick  head 
sharply  applied  gives  the  best  results. 

On  the  average  all  cultivated  plants  will  exhale  each 
day  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  the  dry  growth  of  the 
plant  for  the  year.  The  time  of  growth  varies  from 
seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  days,  but  in  gen- 
eral the  plant  requires  for  good  growth  about  one 
hundred  times  as  much  water  as  the  yearly  growth 
when  dried.  This  is  equal  to  eighteen  inches  in  depth, 
which  therefore  may  be  called  the  absolute  duty  of 
water.  To  this  must  be  added  one-third  for  seepage 
and  evaporation.  But  to  calculate  more  readily  the 
Colorado  irrigators  will  usually  estimate  that  twenty- 
one  total  acre  inches  are  sufficient  for  a  season's  water- 
supply  for  ordinary  crops,  and  the  writer  is  inclined  to 
favor  this  estimate  as  being  about  right. 

The  duty  of  water  is  constantly  increasing  in  nearly 
every  portion  of  the  country  where  irrigation  is  prac- 
ticed. To-day  in  Colorado  some  engineers  and  canal 
companies  are  making  the  standard  of  duty  nearly 
double  what  it  was  formerly.  But  the  crops  grown, 
the  system  used  and  the  means  of  applying  water,  all 


148  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

cut  a  very  important  figure.  As  we  have  already  indi- 
cated, where  flooding  takes  thousands  of  gallons  the 
furrow  system  only  requires  hundreds,  and  subirriga- 
tion  tens  of  gallons  for  a  similar  area. 

Measurement  of  Water. — There  are  also  many 
different  standards  of  measurement  of  water  for  irrigat- 
ing, and  so  many  different  conditions  under  which  it  is 
applied,  that  one  is  apt  to  become  confused  and  will 
decide  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  technicality  about  it 
that  is  perplexing  and  intricate.  As  before  stated,  the 
units  of  measurement  are  the  miner's  or  statutory  inch, 
cubic  and  acre  feet,  or  by  the  gallon.  With  engineers 
the  cubic  foot  per  second  is  the  standard  unit,  and  the 
quantity  is  determined  in  large  volumes  by  the  rate  of 
flow  in  the  sedlional  area  of  the  channel  and  in  the 
smaller  volumes  by  the  flow  over  a  measuring  weir. 
The  theoretical  capacity  of  a  channel  as  determined  by 
formulae  is  almost  always  in  excess  of  the  adlual 
capacity  as  determined  by  experiment,  by  a  varying 
percentage  dependent  upon  the  following  conditions  : 
First^ — Sinuosity  or  aggregate  degree  of  curvature. 
Second — Sharpness  of  bends  or  degree  of  curvature. 
Third — The  uniformity  and  symmetry  of  cross-se(5lion. 
Fourth — The  chara(5ler  of  the  fri<5lional  perimeter  of  the 
sides  and  bottom.  The  simple  theory  of  flowing  water 
in  channels  is  not  a  difficult  matter  of  understanding, 
but  it  is  the  modification  of  this  theory  by  the  various 
coefficients  of  fridtion  that  leads  to  misunderstanding. 

To  properly  estimate  the  flow  of  water  in  canals 
and  its  distribution  through  headgates  a  number  of  de- 
vices have  been  invented,  and  these  include  such  things 
as  nilometers,    current   meters,    hydrometric   sluices, 


DUTY   AND   MEASUREMENT   OF   WATER.  1 49 

division  boxes,  modules,  weirs  and  water  registers.  A 
measuring  device  is  not  always  necessary,  especially 
where  one  has  his  own  private  water-supply,  but  in 
taking  water  from  public  canals  it  is  always  more  satis- 
facflory  to  have  an  arrangement  by  which  the  a(5lual 
intake  of  water  may  be  determined,  and  the  Colorado 
statute  now  prescribes  this  requirement. 

A  Miner's  Inch. — As  before  specified,  a  miner's 
inch  may  vary  considerably,  as  it  is  rated  with  a 
pressure  of  from  four  to  six  inches.  We  should  say 
that  a  safe  calculation  may  be  made  with  a  five-inch 
pressure  as  a  medium  of  computation.  A  flow  of 
water  through  such  an  inch  aperture  is  called  a  miner's 
inch.  To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  miner's  inches, 
multiply  the  given  number  of  miner's  inches  by  14.961, 
pointing  off  five  decimal  places.  The  result  gives  the 
number  of  gallons  discharged  per  second.  To  find  the 
number  of  miner's  inches  in  gallons,  divide  the  num- 
ber of  gallons  flow  or  discharge  per  minute  by  8.9766. 
The  result  will  be  the  number  of  miner's  inches 
sought.  One  miner's  inch  will  flood  ten  acres  a  year 
1.45  feet  deep,  14.49  acres  a  year  one  foot  deep,  18. 11 
acres  a  year  nine  inches  deep.  A  continuous  miner's 
inch  will  irrigate  one  acre  of  garden  or  orchard  nicely. 

Divisors. — It  often  occurs  that  in  taking  water 
from  a  ditch  two  consumers  will  use  one  sluiceway  or 
box,  in  which  event  a  divisor  is  required.  In  u.sing  a 
divisor  there  is  no  Unit  of  measure,  and  none  is 
needed.  In  its  most  common  form  the  divisor  consists 
of  a  partition  dividing  the  channel  into  two  portions  in 
proportion  to .  the  respedlive  claims.  This,  in  efledf , 
assumes  that  the  velocity  is  uniform  across  the  whole 


150  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

cross-se(5lion,  which  is  not  the  case  even  in  a  uniform 
channel,  and  is  much  less  so  in  one  irregular  or  in 
poor  repair.  Such  a  division  is  to  the  disadvantage  of 
the  smaller  consumer.  The  nearer  the  velocity  is  uni- 
form across  the  whole  channel  the  better  this  method 
of  division.  Accordingly,  means  are  frequently  taken, 
by  weir-boards  or  otherwise,  with  this  objecfl  in  view, 
but  generally  with  indifferent  success.  A  screen  would 
yf^   ^  accomplish  this  one  objedl  better,  but 

the  objections  to  its  use  are  too  many 
in  most  places  to  render  it  pradlicable. 
Fig.  40  represents  one  of  the  most 
common  fojms  of  divisors.  The  par- 
tition board  (^)  is  movable,  and  may 
_  be  placed  at  different  distances  from 
the  side  (  C) ,  so  that  the  user  can  vary 
the  proportion  of  water  which  he  re- 

ceives.     A  cleat  of  some  kind  is  often 

used  to  prevent  the  board  from  being 
moved  beyond  a  certain  limit.  Where 
FIG.  40— DIVISOR.  ^^^  ditch  is  wide  and  shallow  there 
is  sometimes  a  simple  truss  used  with 
a  depending  cleat.  Sometimes  a  wire  or  chain  restridls 
the  movement.  In  these  cases  it  is  usually  assumed 
that  the  amount  of  water  going  to  the  side  channel  is 
in  proportion  to  the  distance  the  movable  partition  is 
from  the  side,  and  the  ratio  is  the  same  to  the  distance 
across  as  the  volume  is  to  the  volume  in  the  whole 
ditch. 

Module  or  Measuring  Boxes. — The  measuring 
box  has  for  its  objedl  the  proper  apportionment  of 
water  to  each  consumer,  so  that  he  may  depend  upon 


DUTY   AND   MEASUREMENT   OF   WATER. 


151 


receiving  a  definite  quantity  from  the  main  ditch. 
The  method  of  measurement  gaining  in  favor  in  the 
west  is  by  means  of  a  hydrometric  flume.  One  of  the 
most  ingenious  and  satisfadlory  for  use  on  small  dis- 


FIG.    41 — FOOTE  S   MEASURING   FLUME. 

tributaries  is  that  invented  by  Mr.  Foote.  The  chief 
fault  of  this  apparatus  is  the  fadl  that  it  measures 
water  by  the  inch  instead  of  by  the  second  foot.  This 
unit  of  graduation  can  of  course  be  changed.  Its 
merit  consists  in  the  circumstance  that  it  renders  it 
possible  to  maintain  very  nearly  a  standard  head,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  41.  It  consists  of  a  flume  placed  in 
the  main  lateral  (A),  and  a  side  flume  (B),  in  which 


152  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

is  constru<5led  the  measuring  gate,  while  opposite  to  it 
is  a  long  overfall  (C),  the  hight  of  which  is  used 
to  maintain  a  standard  head  above  the  measuring  slot. 
Such  a  weir  is  cheaply  construdled  and  easily  placed  in 
position,  and  costs  but  a  few  dollars  for  a  small  service 
head.  It  needs  no  oversight  or  supervision,  as  it  can 
be  locked  until  a  change  of  volume  is  desired.  The 
irrigator  himself  can  with  his  pocket-rule  demonstrate 
to  his  entire  satisfadlion  that  he  is  getting  the  amount 
of  water  in  inches  for  which  he  is  paying. 

Weirs. — To  determine  the  flowing  capacity  of 
small  streams,  ditches  or  laterals  the  rectangular  weir, 
such  as  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  42,  may  be  employed, 
thanks  to  the  ingenuity  of  James  I^effel,  of  Ohio.  The 
illustration  represents  a  weir  dam  across  a  small  stream. 
When  it  is  convenient  to  use  a  single  board,  as  is  shown 
in  the  sketch,  one  may  be  seledled  sufficiently  long  to 
reach  across  the  stream,  with  each  end  resting  on  the 
bank.  Cut  a  notch  in  the  board  sufficiently  deep  to 
pass  all  the  water,  and  in  length  about  two-thirds  the 
width  of  the  stream.  The  bottom  of  the  notch  (B)  in 
the  board,  also  the  end  of  the  notch,  should  be  beveled 
on  the  down-stream  side,  and  within  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  of  the  upper  .side  of  the  board,  leaving  the  edge 
almost  sharp.  A  stake  (B)  should  be  driven  in  the 
bottom  of  the  stream,  several  feet  above  the  board,  on  a 
level  with  the  notch  (B) — this  level  being  easily  found 
when  the  water  is  beginning  to  spill  over  the  board. 
After  the  water  has  come  to  a  stand  and  reached  its 
greatest  depth,  a  careful  measurement  can  be  made  of 
the  depth  of  water  over  the  top  of  stake  (B) ,  in  the 
manner  illustrated.     Such  measurement  gives  the  true 


154  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

depth  of  water  parsing  over  the  notch,  because  if  meas- 
ured direcflly  on  the  notch  the  curvature  of  water  in 
passing  would  reduce  the  depth.  The  Une  Z>  is  a  level 
from  the  bottom  of  the  notch  {B)  to  the  top  of  the 
stake  (^),  while  the  dotted  line  C  represents  the  top 
of  the  water,  and  the  distance  between  the  lines  from 
the  top  of  stake  gives  the  true  depth  or  spill  over 
the  weir-board.  The  lines  in  the  sketch  have  the 
appearance  of  running  over  the  top  of  the  board,  when 
in  fadl  they  pass  behind  it,  but  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
tration the  reader  is  supposed  to  look  through  the  board 
and  the  post.  The  surface  of  the  water  below  the 
board  should  not  be  nearer  the  notch  {B)  than  ten 
inches,  that  the  flow  will  not  be  impeded.  Neither 
should  the  nature  of  the  channel  above  the  board  be 
such  as  to  force  or  hurry  the  water  to  the  board,  but 
should  be  of  ample  width  and  depth  to  allow  the  water 
to  approach  the  board  quietly.  If  the  water  passes  the 
channel  rapidly  it  will  be  forced  over  the  weir  and  a 
larger  quantity  will  pass  than  if  allowed  to  spill  from  a 
large  body  moving  slowly. 

Weir  Table. — The  table  on  the  opposite  page 
may  be  of  service  where  the  delivery  is  such  that  it 
can  be  measured  over  a  re(5langular  weir,  as  described 
under  the  foregoing  caption. 

To  use  the  table,  measure  the  depth  of  water  in 
inches  over  the  weir.  From  the  depth  so  measured  find 
in  the  table  the  miner's  inches  flowing  for  each  inch  of 
width  in  the  weir  opening.  The  width  of  the  weir 
opening  in  inches  multiplied  by  miner's  inches  in  the 
table  gives  the  miner's  inches  flowing  over  the  weir. 
Multiply  the  miner's  inches  by  .02  to  obtain  the  cubic 


DUTY   AND    MEASUREMENT   OF   WATER. 


155 


feet  a  second  or  .04  for  the  acre  feet  a  day,  or  by  0.5 
for  the  acre  inches  a  day,  or  by  4  for  the  acre  feet  in 
100  days,  or  by  9  for  the  gallons  a  minute. 


THE   CAr,IFORNlA   WEIR   TABI,E 


Depth 


Miner's 
inches 


.01 
.04 
.07 
.12 
.17 
.22 
.27 
.33 
.39 
.46 
.54 


.77 

.86 

.95 

1.04 

1.13 

1  22 
1.32 
1.42 
1.52 
1.63 
1.74 
1.86 
1.97 

2  08 
2.19 
2.31 
2.43 


Depth 


Miner's 
inches 


2.56 
2.69 
2.81 
2  93 
3.07 
3.19 
333 
3.47 
3.61 
3.75 
3.89 
4.03 
4.18 
4.32 
4.47 
4.62 
477 

4  92 

5  08 
5.24 
5.39 
5.54 
5.71 

5  87 
6.04 
6.20 
6.37 
6.53 

6  70 
6.87 


Depth 


Miner's 
inches 


7.04 
7.22 
7.40 
7.58 
7.76 
7.93 
8.12 
8.30 
8.48 
8.67 
8.86 
9.05 
9.23 
9.42 
9.62 
9  81 
10.00 
10.19 
10.39 
10.59 
10.99 
11.39 
11.80 
12.22 
12.65 
13.06 
13.50 
13.94 
14.38 
14.82 


Depth 


231^ 


Miner's 
inches 


15.27 
15.72 
16.18 
16.64 
17.10 
17.57 
18.04 
18.52 
19.00 
19.48 
19.98 
20.47 
20.97 
21.47 
22.47 
23.50 
24.54 
25.58 
26.65 
27.74 
28.83 
29.95 
31.07 
32.21 
33  36 
34.52 
35.70 
36.90 
38.10 


Gauging  Large  Streams. — Frequently  it  is  im- 
possible to  construdl  even  a  temporary  weir  on  account 
of  the  large  quantity  of  water  the  stream  carries. 
Measurement  must  therefoi^e  be  made  by  other  methods, 
one  of  the  simplest  of  which  is  to  ascertain  the  mean 
velocity  of  the  stream  in  feet  per  minute.  Next  ascer- 
tain the  area  or  cross-sedlion  of  the  stream  in  square 
feet.     Having  learned  these  two  quantities  their  prod- 


156  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

u<5l  will  give  the  required  amount  afforded  by  the 
stream.  The  velocity  can  be  CvStimated  by  throwing 
floating  bodies  into  the  stream,  these  bodies  having 
nearly  the  same  specific  gravity  or  weight  as  the  water. 
The  time  of  their  passage  can  be  accurately  rated  in 
passing  a  given  distance  ;  it  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  the  velocity  is  the  greatest  in  the  center  of 
the  ■  stream  and  near  the  surface,  and  that  it  is  least 
near  the  bottom  and  sides.  It  is  usually  best  to  ascer- 
tain the  velocity  at  the  center,  and  from  this  the  mean 
velocity  can  be  estimated,  as  it  has  been  accurately  and 
reliably  avScertained  by  experiments  that  the  a(5lual 
mean  velocity  will  be  83  per  cent.,  or  about  four-fifths 
of  the  velocity  of  the  surface.  The  cross-sedlion  may 
be  estimated  by  measuring  the  depth  of  the  stream  at 
a  number  of  points  at  equal  distances  apart,  the  depth 
being  measured  at  each  of  these  points  and  all  of  these 
added  together,  and  multiplying  their  sum  by  the  dis- 
tance in  feet  between  any  two  of  the  points.  In  driv- 
ing these  stakes  or  points,  the  first  one  on  each  side 
should  be  half  the  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  water 
to  the  stake  that  any  one  of  the  other  spaces  will 
measure,  the  two  end  or  half  spaces  together  amount- 
ing to  one  whole  space.  Having  obtained  the  cross- 
secftion  of  the  stream  in  square  feet,  and  also  the  mean 
velocity  of  the  stream  in  feet  per  minute,  the  produdl 
of  these  two  gives  the  quantity  of  water  that  the  stream 
affords  in  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

The  Current  Meter.— The  current  meter  now 
so  generally  used  to  ascertain  with  precision  the  veloc- 
ity of  currents  in  rivers,  irrigating  canals,  and  smaller 
streams  gives  the  mean  velocity  of  a  given  filament  of 


DUTY  AND  MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER. 


157 


the  stream  of  any  required  length.  A  float  observa- 
tion gives  only  the  velocity  of  a  given  small  volume  of 
water  which  surrounds  the  float,  and  as  different  por- 
tions of  the  small  filament  have  very  different  longi- 
tudinal velocities,  it  requires  a  great  many  float  obser- 
vations to  give  as 
valuable  information 
as  may  be  obtained 
by  running  a  cur- 
rent meter  in  the 
same  filament  for  one 
minute.  The  cur- 
rent meter  method  is 
the  most  accurate  for 
obtaining  subsurface 
velocities  ever  de- 
vised. The  river  cur- 
rent meter  used  on 
the  geological  sur- 
veys in  the  west  by 
the     United     States 

government  surveyors  is  the  invention  of  J.  S.  J. 
lyallie,  who  manufadtures  them  in  Denver,  and  is 
shown  in  Fig.  43. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  velocity  of  a  stream  or 
ditch,  lock  the  gears  in  the  meter  and  note  reading  at 
the  pointers,  which  will  be  the  first  reading.  Place 
the  meter  in  the  stream  or  ditch,  and  at  the  same  instant 
the  gears  are  unlocked  start  a  stop-watch.  Then  the 
meter  should  be  slowly  moved  from  the  top  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  stream  at  least  three  times.  At  the  end  of 
these  movements  the  gears  are  locked,  the  watch  is 


FIG.    43 — THE   CURRENT   METER. 


158  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

Stopped  and  the  second  reading  is  made,  and  these, 
together  with  the  time,  noted  down.  The  difference 
between  the  first  and  second  reading  is  divided  by  the 
time,  which  gives  the  revolutions  per  second.  The 
revolutions  per  second  multiplied  by  the  ratio  will  give 
the  velocity  of  the  stream  in  feet  per  second.  In  the 
computations  the  following  formula  is  used  :  Total 
number  of  revolutions  divided  by  the  time  equals  the 
revolutions  per  second.  Total  distance  divided  by  the 
time  equals  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second  which  the 
meter  moves  through  the  water.  Velocity  in  feet  per 
second  divided  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  second 
equals  the  ratio. 

The  Water  Register. — This  is  a  device  used  in 
measuring  the  water  that  flows  in  specified  currents, 
such  as  rivers,  canals,  or  flumes.  Fig.  44  gives  a  very 
good  idea  of  its  mechanism. 

It  consists  of  a  dial  divided  circumferentially  into 
spaces  corresponding  to  the  days  of  the  week  and  the 
hours  and  minutes  of  the  day.  Beginning  at  the  cir- 
cumference and  going  toward  the  center  of  the  dial  it 
is  divided  into  a  scale  of  feet  and  inches.  The  dial  is 
turned  by  clockwork,  making  one  revolution  in  seven 
days.  Pressing  against  the  dial  is  a  pen  filled  with  a 
specially  prepared  ink  which  does  not  dry  in  the  pen. 
This  pen  is  one  of  two  arms  attached  to  a  revolvable 
shaft,  the  other  arm  being  in  the  form  of  a  segment  of 
a  gear.  This  segment  meshes  with  a  small  pinion 
secured  to  a  shaft  carrying  a  grooved  pulley.  Over 
the  grooved  pulley  a  cord  is  passed,  carrying  at  one 
end  a  float  which  rests  upon  the  water  to  be  measured 
and  at  the  other  end  a  weight  which  nearly  counter- 


DUTY  AND   MEASUREMENT   OF   WATER. 


159 


balances  the  float,  keeping  the  cord  tight.  As  the 
water  rises  and  falls  the  float  rises  and  falls  with  it. 
This  fluctuation  causes  the  cord  to  revolve  the  grooved 
pulley  over  which  it  passes  ;  the  small  pinion  being 
fixed  on  the  same  shaft  as  the  pulley  revolves  with  it, 
communicating  its  motion  to  the  segmental  gear,  which 


FIG.    44 — WATER    REGISTER. 

being  attached  to  the  same  shaft  as  the  pen,  both  will 
revolve  together  ;  and  the  pen,  being  in  contadl  with 
the  dial,  will  trace  a  mark  upon  it,  leaving  a  graphical 
record  showing  the  days,  hours  and  minutes  in  one 
diredlion,  and  feet  and  inches  in  another. 

The  Stokes  Measuring  Gate. — This  is  a  newly 
patented  device  by  Mr.  Stokes,  of  Montrose  county, 
Colorado,  and  is  a  really  useful  contrivance  for  deter- 
mining just  how  much  water  a  consumer  is  receiving 


i6o 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


from  a  ditch  company.  It  is  self-registering  and  is 
said  to  be  absolutely  accurate.  The  design  is  shown 
in  Fig.  45.  It  is  not  a  headgate,  but  is  to  be  used  as 
a  meter,  and  is  placed  in  the  main  ditch  below  the  head- 
gate  or  in  private  laterals  below  the  tap-gates.  The 
gate  is  placed  in  a  frame  or  box  in  the  ditch,  so  that 
the  water  flows  through  the  aperture  created  when 
the  slide  is  raised.     In  measuring  the  flow  the  slide  is 


FIG.    45 — THE    STOKES    MEASURING   GATE. 


lowered  into  the  water  until  the  flange  on  the  side  is  at 
the  level  of  the  surface.  The  amount  of  water  is  then 
indicated  on  the  scales.  The  water  must  stand  steadily 
at  the  flange  and  flow  freely  away  below  the  gate. 
These  conditions  may  be  secured  in  a  ditch  of  any  grade 
by  the  use  of  a  weir-board  if  necessary.  In  order  to 
turn  out  a  given  quantity  of  water  into  a  ditch  or 
lateral  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  raise  the  slide  until 
the  indicators  point  to  the  required  amount  and  then 


DUTY   AND    MEASUREMENT   OP   WATER.  l6l 

•raise  the  headgate  until  the  water-level  stands  at  the 
water-line  on  the  slide.  In  a(5lual  use  the  velocity  of 
the  water  is  not  a  fadlor  in  the  measurement,  the 
velocity  of  each  ditch  being  brought,  automatically  to 
a  constant  by  the  slide,  which  creates  a  fixed  pressure 
for  all  quantities  of  water. 

A  Simple  Method  of  Measuring  Water. — 
Sele(5l  a  place  in  the  stream  with  as  even  grade  as  pos- 
sible having  uniform  banks  and  free  from  rubbish, 
such  as  stones,  grass  or  brush.  It  is  desirable  to  have 
an  even  fall  of  the  stream  and  a  nearly  uniform  current 
throughout  its  entire  width  and  depth.  The  stream 
should  have  a  straight  course  for  twenty  to  fifty  feet. 
The  cross-sedlion  multiplied  by  the  velocity  or  rate  of 
movement  will  give  the  approximate  amount  of  water 
flowing  in  the  stream.  The  cross-sedtion  is  found  by 
measuring  the  depth  at  regular  intervals  across  the 
stream.  The  average  of  these  is  obtained  by  adding 
them  together  and  dividing  by  the  number  of  measure- 
ments taken.  The  average  depth  then  multiplied  by 
the  width  will  give  the  cross-se(5lion.  To  find  the 
velocity,  measure  off  a  convenient  distance,  say,  twenty 
feet  of  the  stream,  where  the  channel  is  straight  and  its 
bed  even.  Throw  a  chip  in  the  stream  ten  feet  above 
the  upper  mark.  The  float  will  attain  the  velocity  of 
the  water  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  first  mark.  When 
the  float  pavsses  the  upper  point  the  time  is  noted  by 
the  second-hand  of  a  watch.  The  float  is  followed 
down-stream  until  it  passes  the  lower  mark  at  the  end 
of  the  twenty  feet,  when  the  time  is  again  noted. 

Suppose  it  took  ten  seconds  for  the  float  to  travel 
the  twenty  feet,  then  in  one  second  the  stream  would 


l62  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

flow  one-tenth  of  twenty  feet,  or  two  feet.  Therefore, 
the  velocity  of  the  stream  is  two  feet  a  second.  This, 
multiplied  by  the  cross-se(5lion,  will  give  the  approxi- 
mate discharge,  or  the  amount  of  water,  flowing  in  the 
stream.  Suppose  in  the  case  given  that  the  cross-sec- 
tion was  eight  square  feet,  then  the  discharge  would 
be  two,  the  velocity,  multiplied  by  eight,  the  cross- 
sedlion,  which  equals  sixteen  cubic  feet  a  second.  This 
is  not  the  exadl  amount  flowing  in  the  stream  because 
the  water  flows  fastest  near  the  surface  and  in  the  cen- 
ter. The  float  naturally  takes  the  velocity  of  the 
swiftest  portion  of  the  current.  The  velocity  is 
retarded  at  the  sides  and  bottom  by  fridlion.  If  a  more 
exac5l  measurement  is  required  the  result  if  multiplied 
by  between  .80  and  .90,  according  to  the  roughness  of 
the  bank  and  amount  of  obstru<5lion  in  the  channel, 
will  give  the  amount  of  water  flowing  in  the  stream 
near  enough  for  ordinary  purposes.  For  example  : 
using  .80  as  a  facflor  in  the  previous  case,  we  have 
.80  multiplied  by  16  or  12.80  cubic  feet  as  the  acftual 
discharge.  The  judgment  of  the  operator  must  be 
exercised  in  the  use  of  this  fac5lor.  Ordinarily  with 
common  dirt  banks  a  fa<5lor  of  .85  will  be  nearly  cor- 
re(5l.  By  the  use  of  this  simple  but  efficient  method 
any  water  consumer  may  ascertain  for  himself  whether 
or  not  he  is  receiving  the  quantity  of  water  to  which  he 
is  entitled. 

A  California  Weir  System. — It  often  happens 
that  there  is  great  trouble  in  the  canal  system  in  divid- 
ing the  water  equitably  among  a  number  of  irrigators, 
patrons  of  the  ditch.  Consumers  are  expected  to  bear 
their  proportion  of  loss  by  seepage  and  evaporation 


DUTY   AND    MEASUREMENT   OF   WATER.  1 63 

between  the  head  of  the  main  canal  and  their  respec5live 
gates.  This  loss  is  a  varying  one,  being  so  great  on  a 
hot  day  that  if  each  gate  is  set  to  take  its  quota  with- 
out shrinkage,  the  man  at  the  end  of  the  system  seldom 
has  enough  water  to  drink.  The  West  Highlands 
water  company  in  San  Bernardino  county  put  in  a 
system  of  w^eirs  which  will  completely  avoid  this  diffi- 
culty. Their  main  ditch  is  one  mile  in  length,  with 
six  lateral  branches,  each  the  same  length.  At  the 
head  of  the  first  lateral  the  ditch  expands  into  a  large 
cemented  basin  having  two  outlets,  one  opening  into 
the  main,  the  other  into  the  lateral.  In  each  opening 
is  set  an  iron  gate  of  ample  width  and  hight,  and  hav- 
ing a  sliding  door  which  may  be  opened  sidewise  to 
any  given  width  and  fastened  at  that  point.  Both 
gates  are  exadlly  on  a  level.  The  weir  at  the  head  of 
each  succeeding  lateral  is  an  exac5l  duplicate.  Five 
weirs  suffice  for  the  six  branches,  the  fifth  one  serving 
for  two,  being  at  the  last  point  of  the  division.  The 
distribution  of  the  water  is  so  arranged  that  but  one 
consumer  has  water  in  a  certain  lateral  at  a  time. 
Under  this  arrangement  the  zanjero  or  ditch  walker, 
starting  at  the  head  of  the  main  line  with,  say,  six  hun- 
dred inches  of  water  to  be  divided  equally  among  the 
six  laterals,  goes  to  the  first  weir  and  sets  the  gates  in 
the  ratio  of  five  for  the  main  to  one  for  the  lateral,  and 
so  on,  the  gates  in  the  last  weir  being  set  equally  open. 
Measurements  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  water  are 
made  on  the  open  weir  basis.  Under  this  arrangement 
it  will  be  seen  that  any  decrease  and  likewise  any 
increase  in  the  flow  is  equitably  divided  among  all 
parties  on  the  system. 


1 64 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


Capacity  of  Pipes. — To  give  a  comprehensible 
exhibit  of  pipe  capacity  and  divscharge,  the  following 
table  has  been  compiled  : 

CARRYING  CAPACITY— GAIyl^ONS  PKR  MINUTE 


-«; 

^<=^ 

^^ 

r-*s 

^< 

«^ 

^«; 

8XSBOF   PIPE 

<§ 

<l 

<l 

<l 

<l 

^! 

"^^ 

^1 

1^ 

n 

n 

1^ 

1^ 

1^ 

^^ 

^^ 

s 

<s 

'^ 

>o 

Ov 

s 

N 

'^ 

8  inch 

18 

Itt 

28 

82 

40 

46 

«4 

79 

4    " 

27 

88 

47 

nn 

81 

98 

181 

168 

6    " 

75 

1(« 

\M 

m 

224 

258 

8(54 

450 

8    " 

168 

21(S 

2(J5 

875 

4(iO 

527 

750 

928 

9    " 

206 

m) 

855 

508 

617 

712 

1.00(5 

1,240 

10    " 

207 

878 

4(58 

(555 

808 

926 

1.810 

1,618 

18    " 

422 

rm 

780 

1,088 

1,278 

1,4(58 

2,016 

2,554 

16    " 

74() 

1,()21 

1/482 

1,818 

2,224 

2,4(51 

8,617 

4,467 

18     " 

1,1(58 

\,(m 

2,023 

2,8(50 

8.508 

4,045 

5,7(K4 

7,017 

24     " 

2,3P« 

8,887 

1,155 

5.H71 

7,202 

8,808 

11.744 

14,4(56 

80    " 

4,187 

5,»2() 

7,252 

10,557 

12,580 

14,504 

20,516 

25,277 

Some  Simple  Rules. — A  miner's  inch  of  water 
is  equal  to  nine  gallons  a  minute. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity 
four  times. 

A  cubic  foot  flowing  a  .second  of  time  is  equal  to 
fifty  miner's  inches,  or  450  gallons  a  minute. 

A  cubic  foot  of  fresh  water  weighs  62.5  pounds  and 
contains  1,728  inches,  or  7.5  gallons. 

27, 144  gallons  of  water  will  cover  one  acre  one  inch 
deep. 

225  gallons  a  minute,  or  25  miner's  inches,  will  be 
sufficient  to  cover  one  acre  one  inch  deep  in  two  hours 
and  one  minute. 

A  simple  method  to  determine  what  a  windmill 
])unip  is  di.scharging  is  to  measure  the  acflual  deliver}- 
with  a  gallon  measure  for  one  minute  and  multiply  by 


DUTY   AND    MEASUREMENT   OF   WATER.  1 65 

sixty.  Divide  the  gallons  per  hour  by  38  to  obtain  the 
acre  inches  per  month,  or  by  13  for  the  acre  inches  in 
three  months.  These  results  are  not  mathematically 
accurate,  but  will  be  found  close  enough  for  ordinary 
computations.  They  make  no  allowance  for  seepage 
and  evaporation. 

A  safe  rule  for  finding  the  capacity  of  a  cylindrical 
cistern  is  to  take  the  dimensions  in  inches,  square  the 
diameter,  multiply  by  the  depth,  and  then  by  .0034, 
which  will  give  the  contents  in  United  States  standard 
gallons.  Thus  to  find  the  capacity  of  a  cistern  twenty- 
five  feet  in  diameter  and  one  foot  deep,  multiply:  300 
X  12  X  .0034  =  3672  United  States  standard  gallons. 

To  measure  flowing  water  in  ditches,  canals,  and 
rivers  multiply  the  area  by  the  mean  velocity  of  its  flow 
in  feet  per  second,  and  the  produdl  is  the  volume  in 
cubic  feet ;  divide  the  number  of  cubic  feet  by  1.57, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of  the  miner's  inches. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
METHODS  OF  APPLYING  WATER. 


^T^  HK  methods  of  irrigation  in  vogue  are  as  varied 
^    I      as  the  topography  of  the  country.     So  much 

^g»l  depends  upon  the  proper  appHcation  of  water 
that  the  pra(5lice  of  irrigation  often  results  in 
failure  unless  it  has  received  careful  consideration  and 
study.  The  amount  of  water  a  crop  should  receive, 
the  time  in  its  development  to  obtain  the  best  results, 
the  methods  of  applying  water  to  different  crops, 
together  with  that  skill  in  accurate  and  economical 
manipulation  which  comes  through  pracft ice  and  experi- 
ence, are  some  of  the  important  considerations. 

It  has  been  found  that  pra<5fically  a  70  per  cent, 
saturation  of  the  soil  will  give  the  best  results. 
Speaking  in  a  broad  way,  a  soil  will  retain  its  own  bulk 
— not  its  own  weight — of  water,  some  soils  more  and 
some  soils  less.  Now  if  fully  saturated,  and  wheat, 
rye,  orchards  and  vineyards  are  planted,  they  will  not 
grow.  But  if  the  soil  is  given  70  per  cent,  of  the  water 
which  it  can  take  up,  so  that  there  is  circulation  of 
water  and  air  within  the  soil,  then  the  plants  can  take 
their  almost  infinitesimal  drinks  of  water  and  grow 
with  the  greatest  rapidity.  The  soil  carries  this  water 
up  to  the  plant  and  the  plant  uses  part  of  it  and  evap- 
orates it  into  the  air. 

Evenness  of  distribution   is   important.      For  in- 
stance, if  there  is  twice  the  amount  of  water  on  one 
166 


1 68  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

place  that  there  is  in  another,  the  ground  will  dry  un- 
evenly, and  the  dry  patches  will  be  too  dry  before  the 
wet  spots  are  dry  enough  to  plow,  for  in  irrigating 
orchards,  or  any  crop  that  requires  cultivation,  the  plow 
or  cultivator  must  follow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in 
good  working  order.  A  bird's-eye  view  of  a  well- 
planned  irrigated  farm  is  given  in  Fig.  46.  It  will  be 
observ^ed  that  the  land  lies  on  a  gentle  slope,  over  which 
water  nay  be  spread  with  easy  gradient  and  in  equal 
ratio  to  all  portions.  The  various  plats  may  or  may 
not  be  fenced,  according  to  the  owner's  judgment,  and 
in  most  cases  fences  are  obsolete  except  for  pasturage. 
In  the  use  of  water  it  may  be  estimated  that  i  ,000 
gallons  of  water  a  minute  will  irrigate  an  acre  an  hour 
of  row  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  corn,  etc. ,  and  it  requires 
two  men  to  handle  this  amount  of  water  properly,  as  it 
is  equal  to  ninety  miner's  inches.  An  inch  of  water 
nominally  will  cover  an  acre  of  land.  The  cost  of 
irrigating  an  acre  will  vary  all  the  way  from  75  cents 
to  $1 .  50  for  a  season  of  100  days.  Water-rates  in  Colo- 
rado, where  water  is  rented,  are  usually  $1.50  an  acre 
per  annum,  and  this  rate  is  fixed  by  the  county  com- 
missioners. It  is  a  good  rule,  in  the  arid  region  at 
least,  to  have  the  water  running  constantly  on  some 
portion  of  the  farm,  although  this  is  not  an  inflexible 
rule  on  account  of  the  wastefulness  which  it  entails. 
Old  irrigators  never  shut  off  the  water  when  a  shower 
comes  up.  In  all  irrigating  work  it  is  well  to  imitate 
nature  as  nearly  as  we  can.  It  will  be  well  to  remem- 
ber in  this  connecftion  that  the  soil  must  be  adapted  to 
the  way,  which  on  the  other  hand  is  itself  not  adapted 
to  all  soils. 


METHODS   OI^   APPLYINC^   WATKR. 


169 


Subsidiary  Canals. — Where  the  supply  canal  is 
large  and  the  banks  thick,  it  is  well  to  divert  the  water 
from  it  in  only  one  place.  A  shallow  subsidiary  canal 
may  be  made  parallel  with  it,  into  which  sufficient 
water  is  allowed  to  flow  to  supply  the  laterals.  It  is 
very  easy  for  a  stream  to  get  beyond  the  control  of  the 


FIG.   47 — LATERAL   BULKHEAD. 


irrigator,  and  he  must  watch  the  aperture  in  the  canal 
bank  closely  and  take  measures  to  prevent  this.  In 
the  most  primitive  forms  of  irrigation  the  shovel  is 
relied  upon  entirely  for  regulating  the  flow  of  water  ; 
but  a  step  in  advance  is  made  by  putting  in  wooden 
boxes  at  such  places,  with  a  simple  gate  board  sliding 
between  upright  cleats.  In  this  way  the  exa6l  quan- 
tity of  water  desired  niay  be  diverted,  without  danger 


lyo 


IRRIGATION    FARMING. 


that  too  much  will  force  its  way  through.  One  advan- 
tage of  these  subsidiary  canals  is  that  it  catches  up  the 
leakage  of  the  main  canal  and  utilizes  it  for  immediate 
use,  and  at  the  same  time  avoids  the  discomfitures  of 
seepage  waters  on  the  lands  to  be  irrigated.  Some- 
times these  secondary  canals  are  cemented,  and  they  are 
useful  in  governing  the  water  for  the  furrows  by  means 
of  bulkheads.  These  bulkheads  may  best  be  fixed 
permanently  in  position,  and  if  supplied  with  sluice- 
gates they  are 
ready  for  use  at 
all  times,  and  will 
last  for  years.  Fix 
these  boxes  in  the 
lower  bank  of  a 
subsidiary  ditch 
at  the  head  of  the 
K  laterals — and  they 

FIG.    48 — IMPROVED   STEEL   LAND   GRADER.  ^^^Y  ^ISO    bC    USCd 

in  the  laterals  for 
the  furrows  just  as  well.  A  very  good  arrangement  of 
this  sort  is  described  in  Fig.  47. 

Preparation  of  Land. — Little  inequalities  in  the 
surface  of  a  field  give  the  irrigator  more  trouble  in  the 
flooding  system  than  do  large  hills.  They  are  too 
small  to  have  any  provision  made  for  them  except  such 
as  may  be  extemporized  with  the  shovel  while  the 
water  is  running.  When  the  surface  can  all  be  brought 
to  an  even  grade,  work  is  greatly  lessened,  water  is 
economized,  and  the  spotted  appearance  of  the  crop  is 
avoided.  Grading  fields  on  any  large  scale  has  hitherto 
been  impracticable,   because  no  machine  was  made 


METHODS   OF   APPLYING   WATER.  171 

Specially  adapted  to  it.  One  now  invented  and  manu- 
fadlured  by  B.  F.  Shuart,  of  Oberlin,  Ohio,  solves  the 
problem.  A  good  idea  of  this  land  leveler  is  gained 
from  Fig.  48. 

Hesper  Farm,  near  Billings,  Montana,  on  which 
this  machine  was  first  put  to  service,  was  graded  by  it 
so  perfecftly  that  the  water  when  turned  from  the  ditch 
spreads  over  the  surface  by  the  mere  force  of  gravity, 
with  a  uniformity  of  effec5t  which  reduces  the  task  of 
irrigation  almost  to  recreation.  On  this  farm  one  man 
handles  250  inches  of  water  and  has  time  to  spare. 
Grading  land  pradlically  dispenses  with  the  incessant 
and  exhaustive  use  of  the  shovel,  incident  to  irrigating 
under  ordinary  conditions.  On  a  well-graded  farm 
the  irrigator  in  applying  the  water  has  little  need  of 
his  shovel,  except  for  opening .  and  closing  again  the 
banks  of  the  ditches  where  he  turns  out  the  water. 
The  even  grade  also  makes  it  possible  to  run  the  water 
farther,  and  thus  reduces  the  number  of  laterals  neces- 
sary, and  increases  the  head  of  water  which  can  be 
used  to  advantage.  Fifty  inches  is  the  head  ordinarily 
used  on  Hesper  Farm.  With  this  machine  one  man 
with  a  team  can  grade  from  three  to  five  acres  a  day  on 
an  average. 

There  are  now  other  levelers  in  use,  such  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  49,  propelled  by  four  horses,  which  will 
grade  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  acres  a  day,  and  leave 
the  surface  in  fine  condition  for  seeding.  In  these  the 
cutting  blade  is  a  2x8  inch  plank,  twelve  feet  long, 
shod  with  a  plate  of  steel  six  inches  wide,  one-half 
inch  thick,  and  the  length  of  the  plank.  This  is  sus- 
pended by  coiled  springs,   is  raised  and  lowered  by 


172  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

levers,  can  be  adjusted  at  various  angles,  and  loads  and 
dumps  automatically  on  uneven  surfaces.  The  wheels 
on  which  the  supporting  platform  rests  are  sixteen 
inches  in  diameter,  fourteen  feet  apart,  and  the  cutting 
blade  occupies  exacftly  the  same  relation  to  the  soil 
that  the  bit  of  a  plane  does  to  the  wood.  It  shaves 
it  off  and  sweeps  the  loose  earth  along  until  a  low 
place  is  encountered,  when  it  slides  out  from  under  the 
blade  and  fills  the  cavity.  The  very  same  reasons  that 
make  this  valuable  to  the  farmers  of  the  arid  regions 
commend  it  to  the  husbandman  of  the  humid  states, 
for  his  fields  are  just  as  uneven,  they  encounter  more 
moisture  in  a  year  than  the  irrigator  ever  applies,  and 
crops  suffer  exa<5lly  in  the  same  manner  from  the  un- 
even application  of  moisture. 

Importance  of  Grading. — Leveling  should  be 
the  first  step  toward  cultivating  by  irrigation.  If  one 
is  going  to  use  water,  common  sense  will  suggest  that 
provision  should  be  made  for  using  it  properly,  so  as 
to  get  the  full  benefit.  Thousands  of  acres  have  been 
pradlically  ruined  by  overwatering,  or,  in  other  words, 
by  watering  without  leveling.  Days  and  weeks  of 
time  are  spent  by  farmers  struggling  to  put  water  on 
the  high  places,  drowning  the  lower  parts  and  skimp- 
ing the  higher  levels.  A  good  watering  should  put  on 
the  ground  enough  to  cover  the  whole  surface  at  least 
three  or  four  inches  deep.  It  is  evident  that  if  one 
portion  is  over  three  inches  higher  than  others,  there 
is  too  little  water  covering  the  high  spots  and  far  too 
much  flooding  the  sags.  As  soon  as  the  earth  fails  to 
absorb  the  water  it  begins  to  dissolve  the  alkaline  salts 
and  bring  them  to  the  surface. 


174  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

It  is  highly  important  to  level  all  land  so  that  the 
water  will  run  freely  across  at  uniform  depth  and 
velocity.  Leave  no  low  places  anywhere,  and  espe- 
cially see  that  no  water  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  field 
to  make  mud  holes.  A  farmer  near  Springville,  Utah, 
who  planted  fifteen  acres  of  sugar-beets,  started  to  level 
the  land,  and  had  completed  five  acres  of  it  when  the 
seeder  came  along,  and  so  it  was  planted  just  as  it  was 
— in  the  usual  way.  The  fifteen  acres  had  precisely 
the  same  treatment.  The  five  leveled  acres  yielded 
twenty  tons  to  the  acre  on  an  average.  The  ten  other 
acres  produced  but  twelve  and  a  half  tons  an  acre.  If 
the  ground  is  watered  uniformly  and  is  properly  culti- 
vated it  will  make  a  fine  seed-bed.  If  level  and  fine 
when  the  seeds  are  planted,  they  are  all  covered  at  the 
same  depth,  all  will  germinate  under  the  same  condi- 
tions, and  the  capillary  attraction  in  the  soil  does  its 
perfe(5l  work.  The  tender  rootlets  find  nourishment 
and  moisture,  and  make  rapid  growth.  The  plant 
that  is  well  started  makes  vigorous  aftergrowth,  and 
the  harvest  finally  tells  the  interesting  story  of  in- 
creased producft. 

The  laterals  should  be  carried  to  the  highest  van- 
tage-ground possible  and  should  be  opened  at  con- 
venient points  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  out  upon  the 
ground,  and  in  this  way  it  covers  the  field  in  seeking 
its  level.  The  method  of  making  laterals,  especially 
as  to  the  necessity  of  having  them  raised  above  the 
natural  level  of  the  ground,  is  described  in  Chapter 
VI. 

Time  to  Irrigate. — Generally  all  ditches  in  the 
temperate  zone  should  be  ready  to  receive  water  by  the 


METHODS   OF  APPLYING  WATER.  1 75 

20th  of  May.  The  first  water  is  turned  upon  the  pas- 
ture,' meadow,  or  orchard,  just  as  it  may  be  required. 
One  year  in  the  thirty  that  we  have  farmed  in  Colo- 
rado we  commenced  on  the  24th  day  of  May  to  irri- 
gate, to  germinate  the  grain  that  had  been  sown.  We 
irrigated  three  times  that  season.  We  commence  gen- 
erally from  the  loth  to  the  25th  of  June  to  irrigate  the 
small  grain  crop.  The  matter  of  leaving  water  turned 
on  is  regulated  largely  by  the  condition  of  the  soil. 
While  some  land  will  soak  full  of  water  in  from  ten  to 
twenty  minutes,  another  kind  of  soil  may  require  as 
long  again  to  soak.  We  turn  the  water  on  and  let  it 
stay  until  the  ground  is  thoroughly  wet  and  soft  as 
deep  as  it  was  plowed — eight  to  ten  inches — then  the 
water  is  let  out  of  the  ditch  a  little  further  on,  and  so 
on  until  the  field  is  all  irrigated. 

Every  crop  tells  when  it  wants  water.  The  grasses, 
clovers,  and  small  grains  have  a  language  that  cannot 
be  mistaken.  Whenever  their  green  color  becomes 
very  dark  and  sickly  turn  on  the  water.  When  corn 
wants  water  it  tells  the  fadf  by  its  leaves  being  curled 
up  in  the  morning.  Salsify  needs  but  little  if  any 
water  after  it  is  well  under  way.  Carrots  cannot  bear 
an  irrigation  by  flooding  after  they  are  half  grown.  If 
covered  with  water  the  crowns  decay.  All  species  of 
the  cabbage  family  require  a  good  deal  of  water.  In 
other  words,  they  like  wet  feet,  and  are  very  particular 
how  the  water  is  applied.  All  plants  in  a  dry  climate 
should  be  pushed  in  their  early  stages  of  grow^th  by  a 
judicious  application  of  the  proper  amount  of  water 
and  frequent  cultivations,  at  no  time  letting  them 
stand,   or   go   back   from   want  of  water  and  proper 


176  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

attention.  Plant.s  in  general  need  much  less  water 
than  is  usually  applied  by  almost  every  one.  They  do 
far  better  and  suffer  much  less  with  two  inches  on  the 
surface  applied  two  or  three  times  during  their  growth 
than  they  do  with  twelve  inches  on  the  surface  applied 
five  or  six  times  in  a  season.  It  is  a  sad  mistake  to 
put  on  too  much  water. 

The  determination  of  the  proper  time  to  irrigate 
and  the  amount  of  water  to  apply  must  lie  for  the 
most  part  with  the  farmer  himself.  The  humidity  or 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  as  well  as  the  position  and 
condition  of  the  soil,  are  to  be  well  considered,  and 
common  sense  is  a  better  guide  than  is  philosophy.  If 
trees  are  allowed  to  get  too  dry  the  sap  of  the  stalk 
commences  flowing  back  to  the  roots,  accompanied  by 
falling  of  the  leaves,  and  water  is  often  turned  on  too 
late  to  save  them.  On  the  other  hand,  if  too  much 
water  is  applied  it  stimulates  a  too  rapid  growth,  and 
the  probability  is  that  if  not  cut  back  and  thoroughly 
hardened  in  the  fall,  they  will  be  found  in  the  spring 
to  be  entirely  dead,  or  standing  simply  an  outside  live 
shell  with  a  black  and  dead  heart.  Any  one  can  easily 
learn  just  about  the  degree  of  moisture  in  soil  neces- 
sary for  the  healthy  growth  of  a  plant,  and  the  nearer 
uniform  the  condition  of  the  moisture  the  more  vigor- 
ous and  healthy  will  be  the  plant. 

The  best  time  to  irrigate  is  early  in  the  morning 
before  the  sun  acquires  very  great  power,  or  in  the 
evening  when  it  is  about  to  go  below  the  horizon.  A 
good  time  to  water  land  is  when  a  cloud  comes  up  and 
a  shower  is  expe<5led.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the 
shower  does  not  give  all  the  water  needed,  so  the  work 


METHODS  OF  APPLYING  WATER.  1 77 

will  not  be  uselessly  expended.  Irrigation  should  not 
be  done  in  the  open  when  the  sun  is  shining  hot,  as 
there  is  great  danger  of  scalding  the  plants.  If  we 
have  a  good  head  of  water  in  the  ditch  we  prefer  to 
begin  irrigating  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and 
often  keep  up  the  work  as  late  as  midnight,  especially 
on  moonlight  nights.  At  the  Utah  station  the  tem- 
perature of  plats  irrigated  nights  was  slightly  higher 
than  those  irrigated  days.  The  yield  of  grain  was 
slightly  greater  on  the  plat  irrigated  in  the  daytime, 
due  probably  to  the  checking  of  the  growth  of  the 
foliage.  The  total  yield,  or  the  yield  of  straw  and 
grain,  was  some  fifteen  per  cent,  greater  on  the  plats 
irrigated  at  night,  and  the  ratio  of  straw  to  wheat  was 
therefore  much  greater  on  the  plat  irrigated  at  night. 
Straw  to  bushel  of  grain  when  irrigated  nights,  120 
pounds  ;  when  irrigated  days,  eighty-nine  pounds. 

The  Flooding  System. — As  already  mentioned, 
the  land  mast  be  prepared  and  made  as  near  even  as 
possible,  by  scraping  down  the  knolls  and  filling  up 
the  low  places  so  that  the  water  will  spread  evenly.  If 
it  does  not  spread  in  this  way  the  irrigator  must  follow 
it  out  with  his  shovel  and  condudl  it  to  the  negledted 
spots.  The  application  of  water  to  crops  by  the 
method  of  flooding  is  the  quickest  and  cheapest,  and 
hence  is  almost  universally  used  for  grass,  meadows, 
and  grain  crops.  On  those  soils  which  bake  and  crack 
badly  flooding  is  injurious,  unless  the  plants  stand 
close  enough  together  to  shade  the  ground  well.  Water 
coming  direcStly  against  the  crown  is  unfavorable  to 
the  growth  of  many  plants.  It  has  often  been  noticed 
that  millet,  rye,  oats,  and  other  crops  will  be  larger 


178 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


and  more  thrifty  a  short  distance  from  a  ditch  bank, 
where  they  receive  all  their  moisture  by  seepage,  than 
they  will  farther  out  in  the  field,  where  irrigated  by 
flooding  though  kept  sufficiently  moist.     Most  gener- 


FIG.    50 — DIAGONAL   PLOW   FURROWS   ACROSS   A   FIELD. 


ally  in  the  spreading  of  water  over  farms — particu- 
larly those  that  have  not  been  properly  graded  as 
described — plow  furrows  are  run  diagonally  across 
fields,  as  outlined  in  Fig.  50.  This  system  is  the  most 
practicable  to  use  in  flooding  land.  The  furrows 
which  distribute  the  water  are  run  in  such  direction, 


METHODS  OF  APPLYING  WATER.  1 79 

required  by  the  lay  of  the  land,  as  will  give  them  only 
a  slight  descent.  A  hoef  ul  or  shovelful  of  earth  thrown 
in  the  furrows  at  the  entrance  keeps  them  closed. 
When  the  land  needs  water  the  little  gate  or  sliding 
board  at  the  canals  is  raised  as  far  as  needed  to  let  in 
the  required  amount  of  water.  This  is  raised  or  low- 
ered as  may  be  necessary  in  the  course  of  irrigating  a 
field. 

The  lateral  being  filled  with  water,  the  irrigator 
opens  the  upper  ends  of  the  plow  furrows  by  taking 
out  a  shovelful  of  earth.  The  little  furrows  then  be- 
come filled.  The  water  seeping  through  or  running 
over  the  sides  gently  trickles  along  over  the  surface 
and  soaks  into  the  ground.  Flowing  thus  from  each 
side  the  waters  soon  unite  between  the  furrows,  and 
thus  the  moisture  becomes  uniform  and  general.  The 
farmer  may  remove  all  obstrudlions  by  clipping  off  a 
bit  of  dirt  at  intervals  from  the  sides  of  the  furrows, 
and  flood  his  land  till  the  water  will  everywhere  cover 
the  surface.  In  this  way  he  can  in  an  hour  or  two 
give  an  entire  farm  what  would  be  equal  to  a  heavy 
soaking  rain.  These  floodings  are  often  given  about 
the  heading-out  time,  and  the  result  is  the  produdlion 
of  heavier  and  more  perfec5l  grain.  The  water  should 
be  put  on  as  rapidly  as  possible  with  no  let-up — the 
quicker  the  better.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand 
in  pools  anywhere,  because  standing  water  stops  all 
the  pores  in  the  soil,  cutting  off  the  air  from  the  roots 
and,  as  it  were,  taking  the  life  out  of  them  for  some 
time.  Flooding  requires  more  water  than  many  other 
methods,  but  at  the  same  time  much  less  labor  is 
needed,  and  it  may  be  called  the  lazy  man's  system. 


l80  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

The  Dammer. — An  inexperienced  farmer  fre- 
quently attempts  to  force  water  over  too  great  dis- 
tances in  irrigating  a  grain  field  by  the  flooding  system. 
The  plow  furrows  or  diagonal  laterals,  instead  of  being 
from  50  to  100  feet  apart,  may  be  three  times  the  dis- 
tances, and  in  irrigating  with  a  small  flow  it  is  diffcult 
to  cover  all  the  intervening  space.  When  the  laterals 
have  been  made  in  the  grain  fields  with  a  ditch  plow, 
it  is  customary  in  some  localities  to  run  over  them  with 
an  implement  called  a  dammer,  usually  drawn  by  one 
horse,  although  a  spiked  team  is  often  employed.  The 
dammer  consists  of  a  large  shovel  attached  to  handles 
resembling  those  of  a  plow.  As  the  horse  travels,  the 
shovel  collects  the  loose  dirt  in  the  bottom  of  the 
double  furrow,  and  when  the  driver  raises  the  handles 
it  is  deposited  in  a  heap  to  form  a  dam. 

These  dams  are  spaced  from  40  to  75  feet  apart, 
depending  somewhat  on  the  slope  of  the  furrow. 
The  obje(5l  of  these  earth  dams  is  to  create  a  check, 
and,  throwing  out  the  water,  permit  it  to  overflow  the 
lower  bank.  This  being  accomplished,  the  dam  is 
broken  and  the  unused  portion  of  the  water,  together 
with  the  flow  of  the  irrigation  stream,  is  temporarily 
checked  by  the  next  lower  earth  dam.  lyittle  piles  of 
manure  or  dirt  may  be  placed  in  the  furrows  for  the 
same  purpose.  These  manure  dams  are  not  water- 
tight, but  are  made  so  for  a  short  time  by  covering  the 
up-stream  face  with  two  inches  of  earth.  Much  water 
is  often  allowed  to  run  to  waste  by  locating  the  field 
furrows  on  inclines  too  steep.  In  irrigating  from  steep 
furrows  more  dams  are  required  and  the  water  is  all 
distributed  from  one  point,  whereas,  on  medium  slopes. 


METHODS   OF   APPLYING  WATER.  iBt 

it   may  be   distributed   from  several   points   between 
dams. 

Furrow  or  Rill  System. — It  is  best  to  irrigate 
gardens  and  orchards  by  the  furrow  method.  An  even 
greater  difference  comparatively  in  the  quantity  of 
water  used  obtains  in  the  furrow  irrigation  of  fruit  trees 
and  vines  than  in  the  case  of  cereals.  To  such  an  extent 
does  this  prevail  that  not  only  do  districfts  differ,  but, 
of  two  neighbors  who  cultivate  the  same  fruits  in  con- 
tiguous orchards,  having  exadtly  the  same  slope  and 
soil ,  one  will  use  twice  or  thrice  as  much  water  as  the 
other.  Judging  as  far  as  possible  from  confli<5ling  tes- 
timonies, the  cardinal  principal  appears  to  be  just  the 
same.  As  we  have  endeavored  to  show,  it  is  desirable 
to  have  the  lateral  taken  out  of  the  main  canal  at  a 
point  higher  than  the  grade  of  the  ground  to  be  irri- 
gated. A  practical  example  of  this  diversion  of  water 
is  to  be  seen  in  Fig.  51,  where  a  distributing  gate 
diverts  the  canal  water  through  a  lateral  to  the  fur- 
rows of  an  orchard.  In  garden  and  orchard  work  the 
chara(5ler  of  the  furrow  is  governed  largely  by  circum- 
stances, and  the  kind  of  planting  will  largely  govern 
one's  adlions  in  laying  out  furrows.  From  a  general 
head  furrow  smaller  ones  are  run  at  right  or  obtuse 
angles  into  the  plantation.  A  grade  of  one  inch  to 
the  rod  is  usually  sufficient,  and  an  orchard  should  be 
set  with  this  end  in  view.  In  the  west  we  prefer  to 
have  the  trees  set  closest  together  in  the  north  and 
south  rows,  so  that  one  tree  shades  another  from  the 
two  o'clock  sun,  which  in  winter  especially  is  very 
damaging  to  young  trees.  Always  set  orchard  or 
small  fruit  rows  to  conform  to  the  proper  irrigating 


1 82 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


grade,  as  this  precaution  will  save  much  subsequent 
trouble. 

A  new  furrow  in  orchards  or  vineyards  should  be 
plowed  every  time  an  irrigation  is  to  occur,  for  the 
closely  following  cultivation  which  is  the  most  impor- 


FIG.    51 — DISTRIBUTING    GATES    OF    IRRIGATION    CANAL. 

tant  part  of  this  work  will  close  over  and  obliterate  the 
•furrows.  Make  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  trees  and 
give  an  irrigation  that  is  calculated  to  carry  the  water 
well  down  into  the  soil — lower  than  the  roots  if  possi- 
ble, and  for  this  reason  the  writer  advises  sub-soiling 
before  the  planting  is  done.     The  first  year  after  plant- 


m 


W^ 


184  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

ing,  the  rill  may  be  run  within  a  foot  of  the  trees,  but 
the  water  should  never  be  allowed  to  touch  the  trunks. 
Some  horticulturists  set  out  small  fruits  in  rows  four 
or  five  feet  apart  longitudinally  with  the  trees,  while 
others  put  such  plants  as  raspberries  and  blackberries 
in  the  tree  rows  themselves.  The  advantage  of  the 
latter  plan  is  that  it  affords  more  shade  to  the  cane 
fruits,  but  at  the  same  time  they  are  more  apt  to  re- 
ceive less  water  than  they  need,  as  cane  fruits  require 
more  water  than  is  given  to  trees.  By  planting  in  the 
open  between  the  tree  rows  cane  fruits  may  be  irrigated 
more  frequently,  and  this  can  be  done  independently  of 
the  trees  themselves. 

As  trees  grow  older  year  by  year  their  furrows 
should  be  carried  farther  away  from  the  trunks,  a  good 
rule  being  to  keep  them  in  a  vertical  line  with  the  outer 
tips  of  the  branches.  With  full-grown  trees  the  irrigat- 
ing should  be  done  with  several  parallel  intermediary 
rills,  as  pictured  in  Fig.  52. 

This  system  is  much  in  use  in  the  citrus  groves  of 
Southern  California.  When  the  orchard  is  steep  then 
plant — not  in  straight  rows,  but  lay  out  ditches  with 
a  fall  of  one-quarter  of  an  inch  to  every  rod,  and  plant 
the  trees  along  the  ditches  on  the  lower  side.  Pro- 
fessor Blount  of  New  Mexico  lays  out  his  orchards  on 
a  grade  of  one  inch  to  one  hundred  feet  east  and  west, 
and  on  a  level  north  and  south.  He  admits  water  at 
the  northwest  corner  of  his  quincunx  plantation,  and 
by  double  furrows  his  trees  are  irrigated  on  all  sides, 
as  displayed  in  Fig.  53,  and  by  which  means  his  root- 
lets are  uniformly  watered. 

In  all  furrow  operations  it  is  best  to  allow  the  water 


METHODS  OP  APPLYING  WATER. 


185 


to  trickle  gently  through  them  until  the  land  is  well 
moistened  at  a  spade's  depth  between  the  furrows. 
Before  allowing  to  dry,  hoe  back  the  earth  into  the 
furrows,  and  cultivate  as  soon  as  the  land  will  admit. 
By  irrigating  in  this  way  evaporation  will  be  reduced. 


FIG.    53 — DOUBLE    FURROW   ORCHARD   SYSTEM. 

water  will  be  economized,  the  earth  will  be  moistened 
to  a  depth  of  at  least  two  feet,  and  one  irrigation  of 
this  kind  will  last  as  long  as  two  or  three  by  flooding. 
A  Caution  Against  Erosion. — If  the  water  is 
allowed  to  rush  down  the  furrows  so  rapidly  as  to  be- 
come turbid  by  picking  up  the  finer  particles  of  soil, 
these  particles  will  be  deposited  farther  down  the  fur- 
rows as  the  volume  of  the  stream  becomes  smaller  and 
the  current  becomes  less  on  account  of  the  absorption 


1 86  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

of  a  part  of  the  water  in  the  soil  traversed.  This  de- 
posit of  fine  particles  is  apt  to  ac5l  as  a  cement  to  the 
furrows  and  prevent  proper  absorption  of  the  water. 
It  is  possible  by  the  very  rapid  use  of  water  to  cause  it 
to  flow  through  the  entire  length  of  the  furrows  with- 
out effecftually  irrigating  the  soil.  Tht  novice  at  irri- 
gation is  almost  sure  to  be  surprised  at  the  acflion  of  an 
irrigating  stream  in  the  furrows  in  a  soft,  plowed  field. 
If  the  stream  is  very  small,  it  may  entirely  disappear 
in  the  first  rod  or  two  of  the  furrow.  If  the  stream  is 
too  large,  it  may  carry  away  a  considerable  part  of  the 
soil  from  the  first  few  feet  or  few  rods  of  the  furrow, 
and,  as  already  stated,  flow  through  without  accom- 
plishing the  purpose  of  effedtually  moistening  the  land. 
A  properly  regulated  stream  should  flow  through 
a  furrow  without  becoming  very  turbid  at  any  point, 
and  should  progress  continuously,  though  slowly, 
throughout  the  length  of  the  furrow.  After  it  has 
flowed  for  a  time,  varying  with  the  nature  of  the 
soil  from  a  few  to  many  hours,  the  land  should  be  so 
thoroughly  irrigated  as  to  make  it,  especially  if  newly 
plowed,  too  soft  to  walk  over  without  miring.  Where 
the  soil  is  of  open  or  porous  stru(5lure  and  contains  con- 
siderable vegetable  material,  this  thorough  irrigation 
may  take  place  by  the  furrow  system  without  greatly 
changing  the  loose  and  flocculent  nature  so  desirable 
for  the  rapid  growth  of  vegetation.  This  is  the  acme 
of  irrigation.  Not  every  soil  will  retain  this  open 
strudlure,  even  under  the  most  skilful  handling  of 
water.  With  many  soils  it  is  found  that  the  efFe(5l  of 
the  artificial  application  of  water  is  much  like  that  of 
an  exceedingly  heavy  and  dashing  rain,  solidifying  the 


METHODS   OF   APPLYING   WATER.  I87 

soil  by  breaking  down  the  open  structure.  It  may  be 
said  that,  as  generally  applied,  irrigation  is  apt  to  leave 
the  soil  compadt  and  in  condition  to  become  very  hard 
as  it  dries. 

Underground  Flumes  and  Stand-pipes. — In 
Southern  California,  where  water  is  scarce  and  most 
economically  applied,  the  preferred  orchard  system  is 
that  of  the  underground  lateral  to  convey  the  water  to 
the  place  of  its  application.  The  scheme  is  to  have 
the  water  delivered  by  underground  cement  or  iron 
pipes  at  the  highest  point  of  each  ten-acre  lot.  This 
delivery  is  ordinarily  made  by  a  cement  hydrant  or 
pipe,  opening  into  a  flume  made  of  wood,  brick,  or  vit- 
rified pipe,  extending  entirely  across  the  plot  to  be 
irrigated.  If  it  1)e  trees  or  vines  that  are  to  be  irri- 
gated, there  will  be  from  two  to  eight  furrows  plowed 
between  the  rows  at  right  angles  with  the  flume  and 
extending  in  the  same  direc^tion  with  the  grade  of  the 
land.  Flumes  made  of  redwood  either  V-shaped  or 
square  are  largely  used,  and  opposite  each  furrow  and 
opening  diredlly  into  it  an  auger-hole  in  the  plank  is 
bored,  which  is  covered  with  a  galvanized  iron  gate 
set  in  a  slide,  the  whole  thing  being  cheaply  provided 
but  very  effedtive. 

The  water  having  been  turned  into  a  flume  from 
the  hydrant,  the  slides  over  the  apertures  are  adjusted 
so  as  to  allow  exadlly  the  amount  to  escape  that  is  de- 
sired. Slow  saturation  is  the  desideratum  rather  than 
sudden  flooding,  and  by  using  these  gates  the  flow 
may  be  adjusted  to  a  nicety  and  the  water  then  left  to 
itself,  no  watching  being  necessary,  and  no  constant 
labor  with  the  shovel,  as  when  water  is  applied  from 


1 88 


IRRIGATION    FARMING. 


Open  ditches.  Sometimes  a  substantial  flume  of  brick 
is  laid  in  place  of  one  of  wood,  and  a  square  vitrified 
pipe  with  openings  in  the  side  is  also  highly  thought 
of.  A  sedlion  of  this  terra-cotta  head  ditch  is  pre- 
sented in  Fig.  54. 

Into  this  flume  is  turned  from  the  ditch  an  irrigat- 
ing head  of  20,  25  or  30  inches  of  water,  generally 
about  20  inches.  This  is  divided  by  the  holes  into 
streams  of  from  one-sixth  to  one- tenth   of  an   inch, 


FIG.    54 — SECTION   OF   VITRIFIED    HEAD    DITCH. 


making  from  120  to  200  .streams.  These  are  run 
across  the  tradl  in  small  furrows  leading  from  each 
hole.  From  five  to  seven  furrows  are  made  between 
two  rows  of  trees,  two  between  rows  of  grapes,  one 
furrow  between  rows  of  corn,  potatoes,  etc.  It  may 
take  from  fifteen  to  twenty  hours  for  one  stream  to 
get  across  the  trac5l.  They  are  allowed  to  run  from 
eighteen  to  seventy-two  hours.  The  ground  is  thor- 
oughly wet  in  all  diredlions  and  oftentimes  three  or 
four  feet  deep.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough, 
cultivation  is  begun  and  kept  up  from  six  to  eight 
weeks  before  water  is  used  again.     For  trees  a  year 


METHODS  OF  APPLYING  WATER.  189 

old  one  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  row  will  do,  for 
two  years  old  two  furrows,  and  so  on. 

In  many  places  the  outlet  from  the  underground 
head  flume  is  through  a  series  of  stand-pipes.  An  im- 
proved measuring  penstock  consists  of  a  four-inch  iron 
stand-pipe  resting  on  a  six-inch  vitrified  service-pipe. 
At  the  summit  of  this  measuring  stand-pipe  is  a  sliding 
gate  on  which  is  a  scale  so  arranged  that  the  amount 
of  water  flowing  through  it  can  be  measured  by  sim- 
ply reading  the  scale.  A  valve  inside  the  stand-pipe  is 
operated  by  a  screw  attachment  and  admits  the  proper 
amount  of  water,  while  it  can  be  locked  by  a  simple 
device.  Outside  the  stand-pipe  is  a  pressure-gauge 
which  shows  the  head  of  water  on  a  measuring  slot 
with  a  glass  face.  This  contrivance  is  used  in  meas- 
uring the  patron's  apportionment  of  water,  and  in  this 
fadl  alone  does  it  possess  any  advantage  over  the  sim- 
ple opening  in  the  head  flume  for  the  escape  of  water. 

The  Basin  System. — This  method  consists  in 
making  a  small  basin  around  trees,  filling  it  two,  three 
or  more  times  with  water  as  fast  as  it  soaks  away. 
These  basins  vary  in  size  according  to  the  amount  of 
water  one  has.  Where  the  supply  is  small  they  are 
often  not  more  than  two  feet  across,  and  even  smaller 
for  young  trees.  Where  there  is  more  water,  many 
make  them  10,  12,  and  even  15  feet  across.  Some 
make  them  square,  others  round,  while  others  make 
them  oval  or  rectangular.  The  plan  is  well  shown  up 
in  Fig.  55. 

In  many  cases  the  formation  of  these  basins  is  very 
stupid.  That  trees  treated  in  this  way  do  anything, 
only  proves  that  they  would  do  better  in  other  ways. 


igo 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


and  does  not  prove  that  such  is  the  corredl  way  to 
irrigate  them.  For  instance,  allowing  the  water  to 
touch  the  trunk  of  a  tree  is  radically  wrong.  In  the 
center  of  the  basin  should  be  left  a  mound  of  dry  soil 
around  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  at  least  two  feet  in  diam- 
eter, and  three  or  more  would  be  better.     Instead  of 


iT^^^rpT'^^'-gir5-^-^^^f^=V=^r^ 


— ^ff— —"^^^^^ 


FIG.    55 — THE  BASIN   SYSTEM. 

heaving  up  earth  on  the  lower  side  and  making  a  pond 
of  water,  of  which  the  pressure  will  puddle  the  bot- 
tom and  prevent  the  access  of  air  to  the  roots,  by  cov- 
ering it  with  a  hard,  tight  crust,  the  basin  should  be 
made  in  the  form  of  concentric  rings ;  or,  where  the 
hill  is  too  steep  in  crescents,  one  above  the  other,  and 
leading  one  into  the  other.  The  basins  may  be  filled 
by  hose,  watering-carts,  or  by  pipes,  but  the  writer 
considers  the  plan  scarcely  worthy  of  adoption. 

Another  plan  to  convey  water  to  the  roots  of  trees 


METHODS   OP   APPI.YING   WATER.  I9I 

is  to  set  a  length  of  sewer  pipe,  or  a  two-foot  box  six 
or  eight  inches  square,  into  the  ground  two  or  three 
feet  from  the  trunk.  Into  this  box  water  is  poured 
until  it  is  filled,  or  it  may  be  conveyed  in  a  hose  and 
allowed  to  run  for  some  time,  so  as  to  give  the  roots  a 
good  soaking.  It  is  better  to  have  three  or  four  of 
these  boxes  placed  around  a  tree,  so  as  to  distribute 
the  water  more  evenly  in  the  ground.  This  contri- 
vance is  seen  along  village  streets  where  shade  trees 
are  grown.  • 

Borders  or  Checks. — This  is  a  cumbersome 
method  of  field  irrigation  in  pradlice  by  Mexican  farm- 
ers, but  which  is  gradually  going  out  of  use.  Each 
border  includes  a  few  rods  only,  and  the  borders  are 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  high,  which  would  indeed 
interfere  sadly  with  the  use  of  machinery.  The  plats 
are  filled  with  water,  which  is  quickly  run  off  from  one 
to  the  other  after  a  thorough  saturation  of  the  soil. 
If,  however,  the  land  is  well  leveled,  five  or  ten  acre 
patches  instead  of  a  few  square  rods  may  be  enclosed 
with  borders  or  ridges,  which  would  be  the  improved 
American  plan  on  a  Mexican  basis.  These  acres  can 
be  enclosed  with  borders  made  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
interfere  with  implements.  The  borders  can  be  made 
into  gentle  swells,  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  inches  in  the 
center,  and  the  base  twenty  feet.  The  objec5l  is  to 
secure  quick  and  thorough  irrigation.  Some  have 
called  it  the  checkerboard  system,  but  it  is  the  only 
one  that  native  farmers  know,  and  those  crops  that 
they  attempt  to  grow  are  indeed  very  prolific. 

The  Contour  System. — In  California,  where 
this  plan  is  in  vogue,  it  is  in  reality  a  modification  of 


192  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  Mexican  borders.  The  land  to  be  irrigated  is 
divided  into  compartments  or  checks,  each  of  which  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  embankments  of  earth.  The 
principal  embankments  follow  contour  hues,  the  ver- 
tical distance  from  one  contour  levee  to  the  next  being 
uniform,  which  is  not  always  the  case  in  the  Mexican 
fields.  The  contour  interval  usually  selecfted  is  six  to 
nine  inches,  rarely  so  great  as  one  foot.  It  depends  in 
all  cases  upon  the  surface  slope  of  the  ground  to  be 
prepared  fpr  irrigation,  and  should  be  less  than  six 
inches  if  the  ground  is  sufficiently  flat  to  permit  such 
an  arrangement  without  making  the  individual  checks 
too  small. 

For  ground  on  a  slope  that  would  require  levees 
more  than  one  foot  apart  in  elevation  some  other 
method  of  irrigation  should  be  adopted.  The  strips  of 
land  between  the  contour  levees  are  subdivided  by 
cross  levees  into  compartments  of  convenient  size, 
which  are  generally  called  checks.  Their  area  should 
vary  according  to  the  volume  of  water,  a  good  rule  for 
porous  soils  being  not  to  exceed  one- fourth  of  an  acre 
for  each  second-foot  when  a  large  head  of  water  is 
available  and  to  make  half  an  acre  a  second- foot  the 
limit  for  a  small  supply.  As  after  the  Mexican  fashion, 
water  is  supplied  to  the  several  checks  in  turn  from 
highest  to  lowest  in  each  series  between  cross  levees. 
The  irrigating  lateral  which  leads  from  the  supply 
canal  is  usually  carried  in  the  direction  of  greatest 
slope,  cutting  the  several  contour  levees  nearly  at  right 
angles. 

Irrigation  commences  by  turning  a  full  head  of 
water  into  the  upper  check  upon  one  side  of  the  irri- 


METHODS  OF  APPLYING  WATER. 


193 


gating  ditch,  as  outlined  in  Fig.  56.  This  should  be 
filled  in  from  one  to  six  hours.  In  the  full  check 
water  should  barely  cover  the  highest  portion  of  the 
ground,  but  stand  six  inches  to  one  foot  deep  in  the 
lowest  portion  of  the  check,  according  to  the  contour 
interval.    The  contour  levee  should  have  its  top  about 


FIG.    56 — CONTOUR    OR   BORDER    SYSTEM. 

half  a  foot  above  the  water  surface  of  a  full  check. 
When  the  upper  check  is  entirely  submerged,  gates  are 
opened  from  the  irrigating  ditch  into  the  next  lower 
check,  those  admitting  water  to  the  upper  check  are 
closed,  and  one  or  more  gates  in  the  contour  levee  be- 
tween the  two  checks  are  opened  to  permit  the  surplus 
water  from  the  first  to  drain  into  and  assist  in  submerg- 
ing the  second  one.  This  will  require  less  time  to  fill 
than  the  first,  because  the  supply  of  water  from  the  ditch 


194  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

is  augmented  by  the  run-off  from  the  upper  check .  The 
irrigating  ditches  frequently  replace  cross  levees,  so 
that  water  can  be  admitted  to  a  check  from  both  sides 
at  once.  When  the  average  time  required  to  fill 
checks  on  sandy  soils  exceeds  three  hours,  it  may 
generally  be  assumed  that  water  is  wasted.  Either 
the  checks  are  too  large  or  there  is  not  enough  water 
turned  in.  Heavy  soils,  however,  do  not  take  up 
water  rapidly,  and,  aside  from  requiring  more  time  to 
absorb  water,  they  do  not  permit  its  flow  to  subsoils  so 
readily  as  do  sandy  soils,  consequently  more  time  may 
be  allowed  to  fill  a  check  in  clayey  soil  without  undue 
waste.  Twenty-four  hours  should  be  regarded  as  the 
permissible  limit. 

Checks  are  occasionally  very  large.  One  was  seen 
in  service  having  an  area  of  sixty  acres,  but  in  this 
instance  the  land  was  exceptionally  level.  The  water 
supplied  to  it  was  reported  to  have  been  as  great  as 
250  second-feet.  Such  areas  in  one  check  are  never 
advisable  and  are  merely  temporary  features  of  a  grow- 
ing system.  Eight  to  ten  acre  checks  are  large,  and 
those  of  two  to  five  acres  are  generally  preferred. 

Embankments  around  the  checks  may  be  either 
permanent  or  temporary.  The  latter  are  rare.  Per- 
manent check  levees  are  made  of  two  types,  either  with 
very  steep  sides  and  narrow  tops,  so  as  to  occupy  as 
little  space  as  possible,  or  very  broad  and  flat,  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  farming  operations.  The  flat  embank- 
ment becomes  a  part  of  the  cultivated  area  and  gen- 
erally is  the  most  produdlive  part  of  the  irrigated  field. 
It  is  construdled  by  scraping  up  material  from  a  broad 
area  on  both  sides  if  the  ground  is  nearly  level,  or  from 


METHODS  OF   APPLYING   WATER.  1 95 

the  lower  side  only  if  the  ground  is  comparatively 
steep.  The  cost  of  preparing  land  for  this  method  of 
irrigation  in  permanent  checks  ranges  from  $2.50  to 
$5.00  an  acre,  the  cost  of  the  necessary  distributing 
canals,  ditches,  and  strucftures  from  $3.00  to  $5.00 
an  acre.  These  figures,  of  course,  may  be  greatly 
exceeded  if  the  ground  has  too  great  a  slope  or  is  very 
much  broken  by  hog- wallows,  or  swales  and  ridges. 
The  only  work  required  of  attendants  is  the  opening 
and  closing  of  gates  and  the  guarding  of  the  check 
levees.  When  ground  is  well  prepared  for  this  method 
of  irrigation  and  the  supply  of  water  is  abundant,  the 
cost  of  each  application  of  water  will  range  from  three 
to  thirty  cents  an  acre. 

Sprinkling. — In  Florida  most  of  the  irrigation  is 
of  the  sprinkling  order  and  is  best  described  by  George 
W.  Adams,  of  Thonotosassa,  who  says  :  "I  have  a 
twenty-five  horse-power  horizontal  boiler  and  a 
12  X  7  X  10  duplex  pump,  with  six-inch  main  pipe  and 
three-inch  laterals  at  the  main  and  running  down  to 
one  and  a  half  at  extreme  ends.  My  trees  are  twenty- 
one  feet  apart  each  way.  I  have  a  hydrant  in  the 
center  of  every  sixteen  trees.  I  use  the  McGowan 
automatic  sprinklers,  conne(5ting  the  sprinkler  with 
hydrants  by  a  one-inch  wire-wound  rubber  hose  fifty 
feet  long.  I  use  twelve  of  the  sprinklers  at  one  time 
and  could  use  more  just  as  well,  each  sprinkler  staying 
in  place  thirty  minutes,  each  one  covering  a  space  of 
from  fifty  to  seventy  feet,  according  to  the  amount  of 
pressure  given  them,  and  discharging  about  1,000  gal- 
lons. By  this  process  I  have  a  genuine  rain,  either  a 
light  one  or  a  powerful  one,  at  pleasure.     If  I  wish  to 


196 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


throw  water  over  the  tops  of  the  trees,  I  use  the  nozzle 
instead  of  sprinkler.  I  run  the  pump  from  7  a.m.  to 
6  P.M.  without  stopping,  using  less  than  one-half  cord 
of  wood  in  eleven  hours.  I  find  no  bad  results  from 
applying  the  water  in  the  hottest  sunshine,  but  would 
if  I  applied  it  through  an  open  hose.  I  think  the 
sprinkler  method  of  applying  water  requires  less  help 


FIG.    57 — IRRIGATING    WITH   A    HOSE. 

than  any  other  I  have  seen,  and  is  without  any  danger 
to  fruit  or  trees.  The  fireman  can  manage  the  sprink- 
lers within  reasonable  distance  of  the  pumping  station. 
For  other  portions  only  one  man  is  ever  needed  and  it 
is  light  work  for  him." 

While  using  the  hose  in  irrigating  fields  with  an 
underground  pipe  system  to  supply  the  water  costs- 
more  at  the  beginning,  it  often  proves  less  expensive 
and  much  more  satisfacftory  in  the  end.  A  field  irri- 
gated in  this  way  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  57. 

Hillside  Methods. — In  irrigating  hillsides  great 


METHODS  OF  APPLYING  WATER. 


197 


care  should  be  exercised  lest  much  of  the  best  soil  as 
well  as  the  manures  applied  be  washed  away.  With 
slopes  at  all  pronounced,  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
draw  the  irrigating  furrows  across  the  slopes  in  such 


h-.  T' -r  "     ii.^.TT  f^i.  Tiffin  m.. 


FIG.    58 — IRRIGATING  A    HILLSIDE. 

dire(5lion  as  may  insure  a  proper  flow  without  the  dan- 
ger of  washing.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  this, 
but  a  little  experience  and  training  of  the  eye,  to  judge 
of  the  proper  declivity  to  insure  a  safe  flow  of  water, 
will  soon  tell  the  careful  cultivator  in  what  diredlion  ^ 
to  run  his  irrigating  furrows,  if  the  water  be  applied 


198  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

in  that  manner.  A  study  of  Fig.  58  gives  one  a  prac- 
tical idea  as  to  how  these  furrows  may  be  run  and 
manipulated.  Flooding  from  one  furrow  to  another  is 
a  very  simple  matter  and  requires  only  a  little  experi- 
ence on  the  part  of  the  irrigator. 

It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  the  furrow  must 
have  some  fall  in  order  that  the  water  will  flow  through 
it,  but  it  should  be  very  little.  On  an  easy  grade  the 
ground  washes  less,  and  when  a  check  is  put  in  a  ditch 
that  is  almost  level  the  water  will  flow  over  its  sides 
for  considerable  distance  and  so  gently  that  it  will 
scarcely  wash  the  steepest  hillside,  whereas  if  the 
laterals  run  down  the  hill,  as  many  farmers  arrange 
them,  the  water  when  dammed  flows  over  for  a  short 
distance  only ,  and  pours  out  all  in  a  body,  washing  ver>' 
heavily.  Some  farmers  persist  in  running  their  carry- 
ing ditches  for  steep  lands  around  the  hill,  while  the 
laterals  run  straight  down  the  slope.  It  is  the  plan  of 
some  to  run  the  main  carrying  ditch  down  the  hill,  as 
it  may  be  protec5ted  with  boxes  and  gates  at  the  places 
where  the  laterals  turn  off,  but  the  latter  should  circle 
around  the  hill  with  just  fall  enough  to  carry  the 
water.  It  is  a  foolish  idea  to  lay  off  laterals  with  the 
fences.  If  more  attention  were  given  to  this  matter 
irrigation  would  be  a  simple  and  easy  thing.  Potato 
rows  and  other  crops  that  are  not  flooded  but  irrigated 
in  furrows  should  also  be  run  with  the  laj'  of  the  land. 

To  raise  a  hoed  crop  on  a  steep  field  requires  great 
pains  and  ingenuity.  If  the  surface  is  not  wavy  as 
well  as  steep,  the  rows  can  be  run  diagonally,  as  de- 
scribed, across  the  slope,  so  as  not  to  give  too  much 
fall,  which  would  make  the  bottoms  wash  away  and 


METHODS  OF   APPLYING   WATER. 


199 


lower  the  water  surface,  so  that  the  rows  are  not 
moistened  underneath.  Some  farmers  run  the  rows 
diredlly  down  a  steep  slope,  and  in  irrigating  let  a  tiny 
stream  trickle  down  the  rills  for  a  day  or  two,  thus 
succeeding  in  having  the  moisture  penetrate  the  rows. 
To  make  the  water  enter  so  many  rows  at  once  requires 
a  very  level  head  ditch,  or  the  greatest  pains  and  in- 
genuity in  the  way  of  checks  to  efFe(5l  that  end.  The 
idea  of  tiny  rills  under  these  circumstances  is  best 
exploited  by  putting  in  lath 
funnels  at  the  top  of  each 
row,  as  described  elsewhere 
in  this  work.  In  an  irri- 
gated country  there  is  nat- 
ural prejudice  to  hillside 
farms.  Still,  if  the  soil  is  a 
stiff  clay  it  may  be  irrigated 
by  flooding  without  tearing 
to  pieces,  even  if  rather 
steep;  but  in  this  case  it  is 
next  to  impossible  to  spread 
the  water  so  evenly  and 
thinly  that  the  soil  can  absorb  all  that  is  applied. 
Hence  usually  a  large  part  of  that  used  runs  off  into 
hollows  and  draws,  and  is  lost  to  the  user. 

Along  the  line  of  many  irrigating  canals,  large 
tra(5ls  of  land  are  often  found  which  have  a  decided 
fall  or  are  rolling.  Where  this  occurs  in  large  tradls, 
the  expense  of  terracing  is  generally  too  great  for  the 
average  farmer,  and  a  system  whereby  the  distribution 
of  water  can  be  assured  suited  to  the  contour  of  the 
ground  must  be  devised.     On  land  sloping  similarly,  as 


59 — A    PLAN    FOR   WATER- 
ING   ROUGH    LAND. 


200  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

shown  by  Fig.  59,  the  water  enters  the  distributing 
ditches  at  the  upper  left-hand  corner,  and,  dividing, 
flows  through  these  into  the  still  smaller  ditches,  from 
which  it  is  turned  laterally  into  furrows.  lyittle  dams 
or  temporary  obstrucflions  of  earth  check  its  flow  from 
point  to  point.  After  water  flows  out  upon  a  field, 
any  surplus  can  be  caught  by  small  trenches  shown  in 
the  figure  as  trending  diagonally  toward  the  right-hand 
lower  comer.  From  these  trenches  the  water  can  be 
turned  upon  the  lower  fields,  so  that  the  excess  or 
seepage  is  not  wasted,  but  is  employed  on  the  less  ele- 
vated tradls.  In  cases  of  inadvertent  pitch,  as  some- 
times occurs  in  furrows  for  street  irrigation,  the  danger 
of  washing  can  be  controverted  by  putting  in  perma- 
nent sunken  sluices.  When  it  is  necessary  to  irrigate 
a  tree  along  such  a  sluiceway  the  water  can  be  led  out 
in  a  sufiicient  quantity  by  boring  an  auger-hole  in  the 
bottom  of  the  sluice  two  feet  or  so  above  the  tree. 
When  water  is  not  needed  to  irrigate  the  tree  in  this 
way  the  hole  can  be  plugged. 

Backsetting. — In  Western  Kansas  a  primitive 
system  of  subirrigation  by  damming  a  stream  in  a  flat 
country  and  .forcing  the  water  through  the  adjacent 
lands  by  percolation  is  somewhat  relied  upon,  but  will 
not  become  generally  adopted.  The  water  is  dammed 
and  simply  forced  out  through  the  banks  into  the 
ground,  and  in  this  way  subterranean  moisture  is 
afforded  the  surface  soil  to  produce  good  crops.  The 
plan  is  rather  too  expensive  in  dam  building  to  make 
it  very  popular,  and  the  operator  having  no  control 
over  the  seepage  tide  would  soon  find  his  ground  water- 
logged and  too  wet  for  ordinary  farm  crops. 


METHODS  OF  APPLYING   WATER.  20I 

Fall  and  Winter  Irrigation. — In  many  sec5lions 
of  the  west  the  system  of  fall  irrigation  has  been  prac- 
ticed with  good  success.  After  the  crops  are  all  har- 
vested the  water  is  turned  on  and  the  soil  is  given  a 
thorough  soaking.  Subsoiling  greatly  enhances  the 
value  of  winter  irrigation,  which  furnishes  moisture  for 
the  starting  of  plant  life  in  the  early  spring,  and 
causes  the  weeds  and  other  remnants  of  the  cropping 
season  to  more  easily  decay  and  adl  as  a  top-dressing 
or  fertilizer.  The  land  is  also  put  in  good  condition 
for  plowing  early  in  the  spring.  But  very  few  crops 
should  be  irrigated  from  the  time  of  planting  till  after 
the  plants  have  had  several  days'  growth.  Fall  irriga- 
tion supplies  moisture  sufficient  to  start  the  crops  and 
gives  them  a  vigorous  growth  of  a  few  weeks  before 
irrigation  is  necessary.  It  is  better  for  young  plants 
to  have  the  moisture  come  from  beneath  than  from  the 
surface,  especially  in  the  early  spring,  when  water  for 
irrigation  is  several  degrees  colder  than  that  stored  in 
the  soil  by  irrigating  late  in  the  fall. 

We  have  found  in  Colorado  that  irrigation  may  be 
applied  advantageously  before  the  regular  cold  days  of 
winter  set  in,  and  this  practice  is  adopted  generally  by 
successful  cultivators  where  water  can  be  had  at  that 
time  of  the  year.  The  late  irrigation  is  useful  after  a 
dry  fall,  and  is  especially  to  be  commended  in  the  prep- 
aration for  crops  which  require  the  maximum  amount 
of  moisture,  and  for  orchards,  or  where  the  water-sup- 
ply is  likely  to  be  short  the  coming  season.  It  places 
the  land  in  the  condition  of  a  storage  reservoir  for  the 
succeeding  season,  and  experience  has  shown  that  the 
soil  that  has  received  a  thorough  irrigation  in  the  fall 


202  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

or  early  winter  has  great  advantage  over  ground  that 
has  not.  This  is  true  when  land  is  fall-plowed,  and 
the  water  may  be  applied  either  by  rills  or  by  flooding. 
Let  it  be  a  good  deep  soaking.  Orchardists  are  gen- 
erally adopting  this  plan  for  their  trees,  and  thus  the 
evil  effedls  of  winter  drying  are  circumvented. 

Foreign  Methods. — In  China  a  very  primitive 
way  of  irrigating  is  in  use.  A  Chinese  farmer's  estate 
is  usually  a  sandy  plain  with  slopes  from  one  end  to 
the  other.  His  first  step  is  to  divide  it  into  counter- 
parts by  raising  low  walls  or  partitions  of  clay.  They 
are  usually  a  foot  and  a  half  thick  and  two  feet  high. 
Where  it  is  difi&cult  to  get  clay  he  construc5ls  the  wall 
of  the  stones  he  finds  in  the  soil,  or  of  broken  bricks 
and  tiles,  and  stops  up  the  crevices  with  clay  or  even 
mud.  Any  form  of  soil  excepting  sand  is  used  in  this 
manner.  He  even  gathers  the  ooze  bared  by  the  low 
tide  with  which  to  build  the  walls.  In  each  little  com- 
partment he  builds  a  ditch  in  front  of  the  lower  wall, 
and  at  the  corner  of  the  compartment  he  lowers  the 
wall  somewhat  for  the  water  to  flow  from  one  check  to 
the  next  adjoining,  very  much  as  is  done  by  the  Mex- 
icans. When  it  rains  the  compartments  fill,  and  the 
entire  field  looks  like  a  lot  of  panes  of  glass  ;  the  water 
soaks  slowly  into  the  soil  and  keeps  the  ground  moist 
enough  for  agricultural  and  horticultural  purposes  for 
several  months.  For  the  irrigation  of  rice  lands,  which 
have  to  be  submerged,  the  lands  are  divided  into  small 
patches  at  large  levees,  so  that  the  appearance  is  that 
of  a  beautiful  system  of  terraces,  near  a  bountiful  sup- 
ply of  water,  which  is  raised  to  the  upper  level  by 
chain-pump  and  treadmill  process  with  coolie  power. 


METHODS  OP  APPI.YING  WATER.  203 

In  places  where  there  is  a  scarcity  of  water  the  men 
and  women  carry,  suspended  from  a  yoke  across  their 
shoulders,  two  large  buckets  with  long  spouts,  and 
sprinkle  rows  of  vegetables  copiously.  Sometimes 
the  water  for  this  purpose  is  carried  in  buckets  a  con- 
siderable distance.  I^iquid  manure  is  applied  in  the 
same  way. 

The  irrigation  of  Egypt  is  now  conduc5led  on  a  sci- 
entific basis.  The  whole  country  is  cut  up  into  canals, 
and  there  are  immense  irrigating  works  in  the  delta 
which,  during  the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  require  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  men  to  manage  them.  An  im- 
mense dam  extends  across  the  Nile  near  Cairo,  which 
raises  its  waters  into  a  vast  canal  through  which  they 
are  allowed  to  flow  out  into  subordinate  canals  over  the 
great  delta.  There  are  some  steam-pumps  used  in 
Egyptian  irrigation,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  is  irrigated  now  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  the 
Pharaohs.  This  is  by  means  of  the  shadoof  and  sak- 
iyeh.  All  over  Egypt  may  be  seen  men  naked  to  the 
waist  standing  knee-deep  in  water  with  a  basket-work 
bucket  hung  by  ropes  between  them.  With  a  swing- 
ing motion  they  scoop  the  water  from  the  river  into  this 
bucket  and  swing  it  up  to  a  canal  on  a  higher  level, 
whence  it  runs  off  into  the  fields.  The  water  is 
often  drawn  from  this  canal  .into  a  higher  ditch  in  the 
same  way,  and  thus  by  a  series  of  planes  it  is  con- 
ducfted  so  that  none  is  lost.  After  the  water  is  taken 
out  of  the  great  canals  it  is  spread  over  the  fields  in 
little  ponds,  and  the  flat  fields  are  often  divided  into 
small  squares  by  means  of  embankments  of  earth  one 
foot  in  hight  which  run  around  them  like  fences,  and 


204  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

which  can  be  opened  or  closed  to  regulate  the  hight  of 
the  water  within  them.  The  rising  of  the  Nile  begins 
in  June,  and  during  the  summer  much  of  Egypt  is  one 
vast  lake.  It  remains  so  through  September,  and  sub- 
sides toward  the  latter  part  of  Ocflober.  It  is  at  this 
time  that  the  water  is  conducted  into  this  vast  network 
of  canals,  and  is  carefully  carried  over  the  cultivable 
lands. 

In  Spain  the  system  for  irrigation  of  meadow  lands 
most  commonly  applied  in  the  northern  provinces  is  by 
inclined  channels  or  the  system  of  spiked  channels. 
The  distribution  channels  are  devised  nearly  in  the 
vSense  of  the  greatest  slopeness  of  the  grounds.  The 
irrigation  channels  connedl  with  them  and  spread  out 
from  right  to  left.  A  rapid  sedlional  change  takes 
place  in  the  distribution  channels  at  the  point  where 
they  separate  into  branches  with  the  irrigating  chan- 
nels, which  by  having  a  gradually  narrowing  sedlion 
from  their  parting  point  down  to  the  end,  pour  out  the 
water  by  getting  inundated. 

Another  contrivance  is  also  combined  with  this  dis- 
tributive system,  which  consists  in  coUedling  channels, 
called  azarbes,  dug  on  the  natural  lines  of  junction  on 
the  meadow  ground,  terminating  in  an  outlet  channel. 
Sometimes  when  the  extent  of  the  meadow  is  not  con- 
siderable, or  when  the  quantity  of  water  available  is 
but  small,  the  colle(5ling  channels  are  changed  into 
new  feeding  channels  for  the  supply  of  other  lands  situ- 
ated farther  down.  They  level  ofF  the  ground  so  that 
the  water  can  flow  over  it  easily,  without  leaving 
standing  pools  and  mud,  or  washing  out  the  ground 
and  forming  gullies.     They  prepare  their  lands  so  that 


METHODS  OF   APPLYING  WATER.  205 

the  water  will  flow  over  them  easily  and  safely.  They 
also  constru(5l  their  lateral  ditches  very  well,  and  when 
they  are  through  with  the  water  the  supply  is  turned 
off.  They  never  waste  it.  They  have  only  a  few 
small  reservoirs. 

In  Australia  much  of  the  interior  land  is  irrigated 
mostly  through  the  medium  of  billabongs  or  lagoons 
that  are  oftentimes  supplied  from  natural  streams  dur- 
ing the  rainy  season.  The  water  is  applied  to  the 
lands  much  the  same  as  we  apply  it.  In  other  coun- 
tries along  seashores  a  system  known  as  warping  is 
customary.  By  this  mode  the  tides  are  received 
through  an  embankment  or  dike  and  retained  until 
the  sediment  or  warp  is  deposited.  Subirrigation  is  a 
syvStem  that  is  pra(5liced  in  all  countries,  including  our 
own,  and  as  it  is  of  much  importance  as  to  detail  the 
writer  will  treat  it  in  a  special  chapter  later  on. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
IRRIGATION  OF  FIELD  CROPS. 


^T^  HE  application  of  water  is  the  one  thing  impor- 

*•  ,  tant  in  all  irrigating  operations,  and  must 
Be»I  receive  the  most  careful  study  and  considera- 
tion. Every  man  must  be  his  own  preceptor 
to  a  great  degree,  and  it  is  only  the  general  rules  that 
will  be  useful  to  him.  The  mechanical  part  of  the 
science  of  irrigation  is  easily  learned  and  quickly 
understood  by  the  novice.  There  is  a  branch  of  the 
science,  however,  not  so  quickly  mastered,  because 
not  fully  understood  by  practical  farmers — the  quan- 
tity of  water  which  any  given  grain  or  vegetable  re- 
quires. No  fixed  rule  as  to  quantity  can  be  given 
because  the  nature  of  the  soil,  lay  of  the  land  and  the 
season  all  tend  to  modify  the  amount  required.  The 
relative  amount,  however,  can  be  ascertained  with  a 
fair  degree  of  certainty.  Experience  shows  that  it  is 
easy  to  exceed  the  quantity  required  by  the  crop,  and 
that  every  excess  is  injurious.  Extravagance  is  the 
common  fault,  so  much  so  that  the  most  successful 
irrigators  are  invariably  those  who  use  the  least  water. 
Cultivation,  too,  is  a  primary  factor  to  the  attainment 
of  the  fullest  success  in  the  magic  art,  and  on  this 
account  the  writer  is  constrained  from  time  to  time  to 
digress  from  what  may  seem  to  be  the  real  text  of  the 
subjeift. 
206 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD   CROPS.  207 

The  irrigator  will  find  that  new  land  requires  more 
water  the  first  year  than  the  second.  Grain  is  irri- 
gated two,  three,  or  four  times,  according  to  circum- 
stances. As  we  have  said  before,  the  best  results  are 
secured  by  using  a  moderate  quantity  of  water.  A 
Mexican  irrigates  four  times  and  gets  twenty-five 
bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre.  An  American  irrigates 
three  times  and  gets  thirty-five  to  forty  bushels. 
Another  farmer  irrigates  twice  and  gets  fifty-five  bush- 
els to  the  acre.  An  ordinary  laborer  irrigates  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  acres  in  a  day,  though  much  more  can 
and  is  often  done,  while  thirty  to  fifty  acres  are  irri- 
gated by  some  farmers. 

Wheat.—  This  crop  should  never  be  sown  on  low 
land — not  even  second  bottom — but  always  on  high 
land,  plateaus,  or  mesas.  Where  drainage  is  naturally 
good  a  deeply  mellow  soil  is  not  the  best,  as  some  ad- 
vocate. A  good  seed-bed  is  absolutely  essential,  but 
the  surface  in  rainy  sec5lions  should  be  left  quite  rough 
for  winter  wheat,  because  it  prevents  the  roots  from 
being  broken  and  dried  out  when  the  heaving  of  the  soil 
in  the  early  spring  takes  place;  and  the  ground  should 
never  be  rolled  where  spring  wheat  is  sown,  in  arid 
climates  especially,  because  the  heavy  west  winds  will 
cut  the  crop  entirely  off. 

It  is  always  best  to  germinate  sown  wheat  if  possi- 
ble without  resorting  to  the  expedient  of  irrigating  it 
up,  as  is  sometimes  done  by  careless  farmers.  The 
ground  should  be  in  good  moist  tilth  before  the  seed- 
ing is  done,  and  if  the  rains  have  not  been  of  sufficient 
quantity  to  supply  the  necessary  moisture  the  field 
should  be  given  a  good  flooding  of  from  six  to  ten 


208  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

inches  in  depth.  After  a  good  harrowing  the  seed 
may  be  planted  with  a  press  drill,  using  from  60  to  75 
pounds  to  the  acre.  The  use  of  the  press  drill  obvi- 
ates the  employment  of  a  roller,  which  is  really  super- 
fluous where  the  crop  is  to  be  irrigated.  It  is  an 
obje(5l  to  have  the  grain  germinate  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible in  order  to  outstrip  the  weeds.  Here  in  Colorado 
we  plant  wheat  early  in  April  and  it  comes  up  inside 
of  thirty  days.  If  there  is  good  moisture  in  the  soil 
no  water  is  needed  until  the  last  week  in  May,  and 
some  men  make  it  a  rule  not  to  irrigate  the  first  time 
until  the  grain  is  five  or  six  inches  high.  One  good 
reason  for  not  irrigating  a  grain  crop  earlier  than 
the  twentieth  of  May  is  because  early  in  the  season 
the  water  is  cold  and  consequently  chills  the  crop. 
Another  objedlion  to  irrigating  before  the  plants  cover 
the  ground  is  that  flooding  bakes  the  soil  and  prevents 
a  free  circulation  of  air.  There  is  still  another  im- 
portant reason.  When  the  soil  is  moist  near  the  sur- 
face the  plant  does  not  send  its  roots  down  as  deeply 
as  it  would  if  the  supply  were  stinted,  and  hence  has 
not  abundant  supplies  from  which  to  draw.  A  month 
after  the  first  irrigation  the  crop  may  need  water 
again,  if  there  have  been  no  rains  in  the  interim,  but 
this  matter  can  be  determined  by  an  examination  of 
the  soil.  The  second  irrigation  will  require  not  more 
than  half  the  water  given  in  the  first  application.  It 
is  a  great  advantage  to  keep  the  plants  growing  stead- 
ily during  the  early  period  of  growth. 

Some  irrigators  are  in  favor  of  giving  a  third  wet- 
ting— not  a  very  heavy  one,  however — just  as  the  grain 
is  heading,  claiming  that  this  prac5lice  makes  larger 


IRRIGATION  OF  FIELD  CROPS. 


209 


berries  and  a  grain  yield  of  more  specific  gravity. 
Overwatering  at  this  time  may  cause  i^t,  and  great 
discretion  must  be  used  as  to  the  water  at  this  period. 


FIG.    60 — IRRIGATING  A   GRAIN   FIELD. 


If  the  ground  is  moist  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  the 
heading  irrigation.  Fig.  60  shows  the  process  of 
flooding  a  wheat  crop  from  a  field  furrow,  the  irriga- 
tor throwing  in  a  diverting  check  of  earth  to  flood  the 
field  laterally. 


2IO  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

If  the  first  irrigation  is  late  and  there  is  a  good 
deep  compact  subsoil,  one  irrigation  will  usually  make 
a  crop,  and  we  would  rather  have  one  twelve-inch  irri- 
gation than  two  six-inch  ones.  The  surface  can  be 
covered  with  six  inches  if  the  incline  is  steep,  and  on 
such  a  surface  it  is  best  to  irrigate  light  and  often,  as 
by  running  heavy  heads  for  a  considerable  time  the 
plants  may  be  washed  out.  On  the  upper  bench  lands 
of  the  west,  when  fairly  level,  two  irrigations  are  all 
that  is  needed,  and  with  only  one  after  three  years  of 
cultivation  there  is  no  danger  of  a  complete  failure 
of  the  crop. 

Professor  Blount,  who  is  the  best  authority  in  the 
world  on  wheat  growing  by  irrigation,  advocates  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  by  the  ridge  system.  He  says  : 
*  *  Wheat  in  ridges  with  furrows  between  will  pay 
many  times  over  all  the  extra  cultivation  and  expense. 
The  ridges  should  be  twenty  inches  apart,  running 
north  and  south,  so  that  the  sun  may  get  in  upon  the 
roots  during  the  later  growth.  On  these  ridges,  which 
are  two  and  one-half  inches  high,  choice  selecfted  grain 
should  be  planted  by  hand — if  planted  early  there  is 
generally  enough  moisture  in  the  soil  to  germinate 
every  grain.  Winter  wheat  wants  but  little  water 
after  November.  Spring  wheat- needs  the  first  irriga- 
tion about  the  time  it  is  undergoing  the  process  of 
stooling.  The  cultivation  may  be  done  with  one  horse 
and  a  small  plow  with  guards  to  keep  the  dirt  from 
covering  the  growing  grain,  or  it  can  be  done  with  a 
hoe.  The  furrows  between  should  be  kept  open  and 
clean  so  that  the  water  when  applied  may  run  below 
the  top  of  the  ridges  all  the  time  and  do  its  work 


IRRIGATION  OF   FIELD   CROPS.  211 

among  the  roots,  and  never  on  the  surface.  This  plan 
requires  only  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre 
and  the  yield  will  be  just  as  great.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  wheat  planted  in  this  way  will  tiller  in  such 
manner  as  to  increase  the  yield. ' ' 

Before  passing  the  subjedl  the  author  desires  to 
again  express  the  caution  about  irrigating  a  seed-bed 
too  prematurely  in  the  season.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  first  watering  should  not  be  given  until 
the  young  grain  covers  the  ground  fairly  well.  Flood- 
ing the  land  while  the  wheat  is  very  young  and  tender 
has  a  tendency  to  bake  the  ground,  especially  with  the 
adobe  soils,  of  which  so  much  of  our  western  land  is 
composed.  When  the  grain  covers  the  land  properly, 
the  sun's  rays  do  not  strike  the  surface  and  it  remains 
moist  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  Then  again 
the  last  application  should  be  given  when  the  grain  is 
in  the  dough.  If  applied  later  than  this,  it  does  little 
or  no  good. 

To  facilitate  irrigation  it  is  well  when  the  grain  is 
sown  in  the  spring  to  use  a  corrugated  roller,  so  that 
the  rims  of  the  machine  will  make  parallel  irrigating 
trends  five  or  six  inches  deep  in  the  field  at  the  one 
operation  of  rolling  to  firm  the  seed-bed.  These 
rollers  are  much  used  in  Western  Colorado,  but  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  difficult  to  manufadture  from 
wood  in  a  home-made  way  they  are  not  employed 
nearly  so  generally  as  they  would  be  if  cast  in  iron  so 
as  to  be  more  weather-proof.  These  rollers  should  be 
weighted  from  500  to  750  pounds,  and  it  will  usually 
require  a  spiked  team  to  operate  them.  A  description 
of  this  valuable  implement  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 


212  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

on  *  *  Devices  and  Appliances, ' '  with  an  illustration 
showing  the  machine  at  work. 

In  lieu  of  one  of  these  implements  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  use  a  horse  marker,  something  after  the 
style  of  the  old  corn  marker.  Take  a  straight  log 
some  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter  and  twelve  feet 
long.  With  a  two- inch  auger  bore  holes  for  the  teeth 
two  feet  apart.  Make  the  teeth  a  foot  long,  having 
them  flat  and  about  as  broad  as  a  man's  hand.  Turn 
the  flat  side  forward.  Be  sure  to  set  the  teeth  so  that 
they  slope  backward.  This  will  prevent  the  seed 
being  torn  out  of  the  ground.  The  extra  labor  in 
going  over  a  field  with  such  a  marker  will  save  a  vast 
amount  of  work  when  irrigating  time  comes,  as  the 
water  will  follow  the  small  furrows  made  by  the  teeth 
and  at  the  same  time  seep  from  one  to  the  other,  so 
that  the  ground  will  all  be  watered  and  there  will  be 
no  sun-baking  at  the  surface. 

The  Depth  of  Soaking. — In  the  absence  of  some 
methods  of  surface  corrugation  we  will  presume  that 
the  irrigator  knows  how  to  make  the  old-fashioned 
ditches  through  the  grain  fields.  The  water  being 
turned  into  these  ditches,  all  that  is  necessary  to  do  is 
to  put  checks  in  them  in  succession  so  that  the  later 
check  will  make  the  water  overlap  at  least  ten  feet  the 
land  wet  by  the  flow  from  the  preceding  dam.  Dams 
are  now  nearly  always  made  by  means  of  canvas  nailed 
to  a  pole  or  board  wide  enough  to  rest  well  on  each 
bank,  and  which  is  fully  described  in  this  work  under 
the  chapter  on  "  Devices  and  Appliances."  If  the  cur- 
rent is  not  very  rapid,  but  little  earth  is  needed  on  the 
canvas,  as  the  weight  of  the  water  on  the  lower  up- 


IRRIGATION  OF  FIELD   CROPS.  213 

Stream  edge  will  hold  it  against  the  down-stream  press- 
ure. Some  use  two  of  these  canvas  dams  alternately 
for  each  ditch  that  may  be  running,  and  an  acflive  man 
with  a  sufficient  head  of  water  can  run  three  ditches 
abreast,  while  others  are  using  only  one  for  each  ditch, 
as  the  check  can  be  put  into  a  running  ditch  by  cut- 
ting the  bank,  placing  the  pole  between  the  cut  and 
stepping  with  the  edge  of  the  canvas  up-stream,  hold- 
ing it  there  until  some  dirt  can  be  shoveled  on  the 
lower  edge  in  the  water.  It  might  be  said  that  such 
ditches  as  we  use  in  wheat- fields  of  fair  or  usual  fall 
will  run  about  a  cubic  foot  a  second,  or,  in  other 
words,  full  water  rights  for  160  acres  will  supply 
three  ditches  which  will  water  six  acres.  This  will  be 
about  eleven  inches  deep.  This  is  more  depth  than  is 
usually  needed  for  one  irrigation. 

If  the  land  is  plowed  deep,  say  ten  inches,  the  land 
cannot  be  covered  evenly  with  less  head.  It  will  take 
at  least  six  inches  to  wet  the  top  soil,  as  it  has  first  to 
be  wet  in  order  to  have  the  water  flow  over  it  readily. 
When  water  is  put  on  a  loose,  dry  surface  it  creates  a 
wet  mush,  and  the  water  will  immediately  penetrate  as 
deep  as  the  soil  is  loose.  Such  soil  will  contain  a 
much  greater  per  cent,  of  water  than  a  compac5l,  moist- 
ened subsoil.  Assuming  that  the  water  is  allowed 
to  run  for  two  hours,  as  it  ought  to  to  reach  any 
considerable  distance  from  the  dam  on  comparatively 
level  land,  and  all  the  time  it  is  settling  into  the  sub- 
soil, which  we  will  say  is  to  the  depth  of  two  feet,  this 
soil  will  take  another  six  inches  of  water,  making 
about  a  foot  in  all  to  wet  the  land  three  feet.  All  this 
will  be  supersaturated,  and  in  a  few  days  it  will  reach 


214  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

the  depth  of  four  feet.  In  this  way  it  will  be  seen 
that  it  will  take  about  two  weeks  to  get  over  eighty 
acres.  Generally  speaking,  the  best  growth  is  ob- 
tained when  the  grain  appears  to  suffer  before  it  is  irri- 
gated the  first  time. 

In  clay  soil  the  largest  yield  of  both  wheat  and 
straw  was  once  obtained  in  an  experimental  way  by 
saturating  the  ground  with  nearly  twenty-seven  inches 
of  water  during  the  season.  On  this  soil  there  was  a 
decrease  of  crop  when  either  a  greater  or  less  amount 
of  water  was  UvSed.  This  maximum  yield  was  brought 
about  by  the  use  of  nearly  twenty-seven  acre-inches, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a  cubic  foot  a  second  for  nearly 
twenty-seven  hours.  On  clay  soil  containing  more 
sand  the  yield  of  wheat  increased  as  the  water  in- 
creased up  to  forty  inches.  The  largest  yield  of  straw 
was  produced  with  sixteen  inches  of  water,  and  in 
adlual  usage  no  pradlical  irrigator  would  think  of  re- 
quiring more  water  than  this.  It  seems  preposterous 
in  adlual  prac5lice  to  apply  such  a  needless  quantity  as 
forty  acre-inches  in  one  season,  and  even  twenty - 
seven  inches  seems  entirely  beyond  the  requirements 
of  common  sense. 

When  much  moisture — rain  or  irrigation — is  ap- 
plied to  the  growing  crop  the  bran  of  the  grain  is  made 
thicker  and  the  flouring  elements  inferior.  The  least 
possible  amount  of  moisture  necessary  to  mature  wheat 
makes  the  grain  superior  for  milling  purposes.  This 
applies  not  to  wheat  alone,  but  all  grain  and  forage 
plants  as  well.  Too  much  water  invariably  dilutes  or 
diminishes  the  feeding  value  of  all  plants.  In  arid 
climates  all  kinds  of  wheat  become  hard  and  flinty,  so 


IRRIGATION  OF   FIELD   CROPS.  21 5 

much  so  that  the  miller  finds  it  necessary  to  thoroughly 
wet  the  grain  before  grinding.  This  wetting  process 
makes  the  bran  tough,  so  that  it  is  removed  by  means 
of  the  rollers  almost  entire. 

Wheat  by  Subirrigation. — The  preparation  of 
the  soil  for  a  crop  of  subirrigated  wheat  should  begin 
ten  months  before  sowing  the  seed.  If  peas  were 
raised  as  a  hay  crop  on  ordinary  far- western  mineral- 
ized land  the  year  previous,  the  grower  would  secure 
the  double  benefit  of  a  large  amount  of  cheap  forage 
and  an  increased  yield  of  wheat.  In  the  subirrigated 
districft  of  the  San  I^uis  valley,  in  Southern  Colorado, 
where  this  system  prevails  more  extensively,  perhaps, 
than  any  other  place  in  the  world,  the  land  is  flooded 
in  the  early  spring  while  water  is  abundant  and  carries 
sediment  for  enriching  and  settling  the  soil  and  germi- 
nating weed  seeds.  When  the  weeds  are  three  to  six 
inches  high,  plowing  is  begun  with  four  horses  abreast 
and  a  double  plow,  turning  the  soil  from  four  to  seven 
inches  deep.  No  harrowing  is  necessary  and  very  lit- 
tle is  done  except  where  weeds  spring  up  on  the  sum- 
mer fallow,  which  is  seldom  the  case.  The  land  is  left 
without  further  care  until  the  following  fall  or  spring, 
when  vitrioled  wheat  is  drilled  in  at  the  rate  of  sixty 
pounds  an  acre.  The  drill  is  set  to  run  three  inches 
deep,  or  as  deep  as  is  necessary  to  put  the  seed  in  moist 
soil.  As  soon  as  convenient  after  drilling  the  field  is 
ditched  for  the  subbing. 

If  not  previously  done,  a  head  ditch  is  made  along 
the  highest  side  of  the  field  to  receive  the  water  from 
the  supply  lateral  and  distribute  it  to  the  irrigation 
trenches.     These  latter  are  made  in  parallel  lines  from 


2l6  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  head  ditch  to  the  extremity  of  the  field  and  at 
such  distances  apart  and  of  such  size  as  the  condition 
of  the  land  determines.  Generally,  however,  they  are 
made  from  five  to  sixteen  rods  apart,  leaving  an  equal 
number  of  acres  in  each  land.  Having  made  all  the 
ditches  necessary  and  received  a  supply  of  water,  a 
small  stream  is  turned  from  the  head  ditch  into  each 
irrigation  trench,  and  regulated  from  time  to  time 
until  the  supply  just  equals  the  amount  of  seepage, 
leaving  no  water  to  overflow  on  the  field  or  to  waste  at 
the  ends.  The  flow  of  water  is  continued  in  the 
trenches  from  one  to  four  weeks,  or  until  every  part  of 
the  field  shows  moisture  at  the  surface.  Water  may 
then  be  shut  out  of  the  field  entirely.  Should  the 
season  bring  a  few  showers  no  further  application  may 
be  required.  The  need  of  water  may  be  tested  at  any 
time  by  brushing  away  the  surface  soil  in  any  part  of 
the  field  that  looks  suspicious.  Reasonably  moist  soil 
should  be  found  at  two  inches  depth. 

Oats. — The  secret  of  raising  oats  successfully — as 
with  almost  all  spring-sown  crops — is  found  to  consist 
in  the  quick  germination  of  the  seed,  a  rapid  and 
healthy  growth  during  the  first  stages,  allowing  no 
backset,  and  careful  attention  to  the  cultivation  and 
irrigation.  Oats  require  more  water  than  does  any 
other  grain  crop,  and  in  very  dry  spells  they  may  be 
irrigated  in  the  earlier  stage  of  growth  every  two 
weeks.  The  general  treatment  is  the  same  as  for 
wheat,  only  that  greater  quantities  of  water  are  usually 
needed.  It  is  well  to  plant  early,  so  as  to  get  the  bene- 
fit of  snows  and  rain,  that  the  seed  may  germinate  of 
its  own  accord.     When  six  inches  high  the  principal 


IRRIGATION  OF  FIELD   CROPS.  217 

wetting  should  be  given,  and  an  acre  foot  is  not  too 
much  water  to  apply  at  this  time  in  the  arid  region, 
especially  on  sandy  soil.  Some  people  irrigate  almost 
continuously  from  the  time  the  crop  commences  to 
head  until  the  grain  begins  to  turn.  The  claim  made 
is  that  the  pracftice  checks  the  first  stand  and  forces 
the  grain  to  root,  stool  and  head  more  abundantly. 
The  only  objedlion  to  such  copious  irrigation  is  that  it 
conduces  to  the  smut  or  ergot  evil. 

Barley. — Barley  is  an  easy  crop  to  raise,  yet  a 
little  disagreeable  on  account  of  its  beards.  It  grows 
quickly  and  matures  early,  and  requires  but  half  the 
water  for  irrigation  usually  given  to  oats,  and  con- 
siderably less  than  wheat.  On  an  average  it  will  pro- 
duce many  more  bushels  to  the  acre  than  will  wheat,  and 
brings  a  better  price.  For  the  best  success  the  land 
should  be  plowed  moderately  deep  in  the  fall,  then  pul- 
verized thoroughly  in  the  spring,  and  the  seed  put  in 
early  with  a  drill.  Spring  plowing  will  do,  but  not 
quite  so  well  as  fall  plowing.  Irrigation  is  quite  essen- 
tial while  the  grain  is  filHng  and  during  the  early  ripen- 
ing period.  One  and  a  qur.rter  bushels  of  seed  on  rich 
land  is  a  sufficiency  to  sow,  and  a  good  seed-bed  is 
quite  as  necessary  as  any  irrigation  that  may  be 
given  it. 

Black  barley  is  said  to  have  many  advantages.  It 
yields  more  to  the  acre  than  any  other  barley.  But 
this  is  not  its  only  good  feature.  It  can  be  grown  with 
less  irrigation  than  can  wheat,  other  barley,  or  oats. 
If  sown  early  and  watered  plentifully  until  the  first  of 
July  it  will  then  head  out  and  yield  a  fair  crop  without 
further  irrigation.     This  has  at  least  been  our  experi- 


2l8  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

ence  with  this  grain.  The  straw  does  not  grow  as 
long  as  other  grain,  but  notwithstanding  dry  weather 
the  heads  will  usually  fill. 

We  have  noticed  that  farmers  are  often  inclined  to 
slight  the  barley  crop,  and  when  water  is  short  give  it 
to  other  fields.  One  peculiarity  of  barley  is  that  it 
does  not  show  to  the  eye  the  need  of  water  until  it  may 
have  suffered  beyond  redemption.  When  barley  grows 
with  a  shortage  of  water  it  retains  its  natural  color,  but 
fails  to  grow  long  straws  and  stools  but  little.  It 
throws  all  its  strength  into  forming  heads,  and  these 
begin  to  show  at  scarcely  eight  inches  above  ground. 
Water  applied  at  this  stage  will  carry  these  heads  on  to 
ripeness,  but  will  not  produce  much  more  growth  of 
straw,  no  more  stooling,  and  the  heads  will  have  but 
few  full  kernels. 

Barley  prefers  an  open,  warm  soil,  tending  to  clay 
rather  than  sand,  with  good  drainage.  The  Calif or- 
nians  of  later  years  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
barley  is  best  of  all  the  grain  crops  as  tolerant  of 
alkali.  Professor  Hilgard  has  maintained  that  while 
sugar-beets  and  wheat  will  resist  from  18,000  to  20,000 
pounds  of  alkali  to  an  acre,  barley  will  withstand 
32,000  pounds  within  a  depth  of  three  feet.  Barley 
does  better  on  rich  soil  and  thrives  well  on  land  the 
first  year  after  treating  with  stable  manure,  but,  of 
course,  in  this  latter  case  the  crops  require  much  more 
care  in  the  irrigating  and  considerably  more  water. 
When  well  fed  and  watered  the  growth  is  enormous, 
and  the  probability  is  that  some  of  it  will  lodge.  Still, 
lodging  does  but  little  damage.  The  heaviest  yields 
we  have  ever  seen  were  from  stands  badly  lodged. 


IRRIGATION  OF   FIELD   CROPS.  219 

One  in  particular  lodged  quite  badly  and  went  down 
flat,  but  the  last  few  inches  of  the  stalk  turned  up 
enough  to  keep  the  heads  off  the  ground,  and  though 
difficult  to  cut  and  bind,  the  grains  were  plump,  well 
filled  out,  and  the  yield  was  enormous. 

Rye. — Of  all  the  cereal  crops  rye  will  need  a  lesser 
quantity  of  water  and  will  take  care  of  itself  where 
other  things  will  fail.  With  a  reasonable  amount  of 
moisture  for  germination  rye  will  often  get  along  with 
but  one  light  soaking  any  time  during  its  half  growth, 
but  if  the  plants  are  lagging  and  seem  inclined  to 
dwindle  they  may  be  irrigated  at  any  time,  and  once  a 
month  with  a  medium  wetting  would  do  no  harm. 

We  have  found  that  in  the  absence  of  adequate 
rains  land  to  be  sown  to  winter  rye  should  be  flooded 
with  five  inches  of  water  before  plowing  the  ground 
preparatory  to  seeding.  As  soon  thereafter  as  the 
ground  is  in  order,  plow  and  follow  with  a  harrow  or 
other  suitable  implement  to  pulverize  all  clods.  The 
ground  will  then  be  in  excellent  condition  to  seed, 
which  should  be  done  with  a  press  drill,  preferably  run 
northeast  and  southwest.  No  more  water  is  required 
until  just  before  freezing- up  time,  when  a  flooding 
equal  to  three  or  four  inches  of  water  should  be  given 
the  rye  fields.  Generally  this  is  done  about  the  last 
week  in  November  in  Colorado.  Again  in  the  spring, 
as  soon  as  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  give  another 
flooding  of  three  or  four  inches.  Once  more  only,  and 
just  when  the  first  indication  of  heading  is  seen,  give 
the  last  flooding  of  three  inches,  which  completes  the 
irrigation.  These  rules  will  apply  to  winter  wheat  as 
well. 


220  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Corn. — The  preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting 
has  more  to  do  with  the  outcome  of  the  crop  than  any 
other  operation.  Com  roots  have  the  habit  of  grow- 
ing downward  as  well  as  branching.  They  are  deep 
and  broad  feeders,  in  consequence  of  which  the  soil 
must  be  made  loose  and  mellow  to  a  considerable  depth 
to  secure  full  development.  I^and  for  corn  should  be 
plowed  to  an  average  depth  of  ten  inches  or  more  for 
this  and  another  very  important  reason.  Those  familiar 
with  the  conditions  of  irrigation  know  with  what 
rapidity  a  compa<5l  soil  looses  moisture.  Land  should 
always  be  well  irrigated  before*  plowing,  if  not  sufiS- 
ciently  moist.  As  irrigation  restores  the  soil  to  its  for- 
mer compac5lness,  it  should  never  be  applied  upon  soils 
freshly  plowed  and  prepared  for  planting,  unless 
required  to  germinate  the  seed.  There  are  advantages 
claimed  for  spring  plowing.  It  enables  the  farmer  to 
control  moisture  in  making  the  operations  of  irrigating, 
plowing  and  planting  continuous.  Irrigating  to  ger- 
minate seed  after  planting  should  never  be  practiced,  as 
much  of  the  seed  becomes  ruined,  and  feeble  growth 
takes  place,  which  can  seldom  if  ever  be  overcome  by 
cultivation.  Usually  two  waterings  are  sufficient  dur- 
ing the  growth  of  a  crop,  and  often  one  irrigation  is 
preferable.  If  the  soil  contains  sufficient  moisture  in 
the  spring  to  start  the  crop  to  a  thrifty  growing  con- 
dition, and  growth  seems  not  to  be  retarded  for  want 
of  moisture,  watering  can  be  delayed  until  the  tassels 
begin  to  appear,  at  which  time  drouth  would  cause 
great  injury  to  the  crop. 

The  mistake  is  often  made  in  the  use  of  a  large 
head  of  water  while  irrigating  corn  and  in  attempting 


IRRIGATION  OF   FIELD  CROPS.  221 

to  get  it  properly  distributed  over  large  areas  and 
through  long  rows.  Much  of  the  land  thus  watered 
becomes  too  wet,  while  other  portions  receive  an  in- 
sufficient supply.  In  neither  case  can  the  best  results 
be  expedled.  Another  very  serious  objedlion  to  irri- 
gating with  a  large  head  of  water  is  that  the  water 
generally  contains  much  insoluble  earthy  matter,  which 
is  ever  being  deposited  as  sediment.  Waterways 
become  coated  and  moisture  fails  to  penetrate  to  the 
roots  of  plants  along  their  course.  To  irrigate  properly 
the  furrows  must  be  well  made  and  as  nearly  free  of 
obstrucftions  as  careful  methods  will  permit.  The 
slope  of  the  land  will  determine  the  distance  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  run  water  for  uniform  results.  No  greater 
quantity  should  be  turned  into  each  furrow  than  will 
flow  with  uniform  rate.  Seepage  is  slow  at  best  and  it 
usuallj^  takes  many  hours  to  secure  the  proper  amount 
of  moisture  to  the  soil  to  prove  of  lasting  benefit.  In 
irrigating  corn  no  great  quantities  of  water  are  neces- 
sary, as  is  the  case  with  root  crops.  While  irrigation  at 
the  proper  time  is  often  essential  to  the  right  develop- 
ment of  the  corn  produdl,  the  crop  is  impaired  by 
excessive  watering,  and  hence  there  is  no  more  certain 
way  of  retarding  growth  and  maturity  than  by  the 
careless  application  of  water.  Better  not  irrigate  at  all 
than  to  use  water  lavishly.  After  the  grain  glazes 
there  is  no  further  need  of  water  to  mature  the  crop. 
Caution  is  advised  in  irrigating  corn  on  sandy  land 
that  the  stalks  are  not  washed  out  at  the  roots  and 
thus  tumble  over. 

One  of  the  most  successful  methods  of   growing 
corn  by  irrigation  is  to  plow  irrigating-furrows  three 


222  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

feet  eight  inches  apart,  using  a  single  shovel-plow  for 
the  purpose  and  plant  the  com  in  the  small  ridge  left 
on  the  side  of  the  furrow,  using  an  ordinary  hand 
corn-planter  for  small  trails.  Always  plant  on  the 
same  side  of  the  furrow  in  the  cross  of  the  mark  and 
ridge.  Never  plant  com  in  drills  if  it  is  to  be  culti- 
vated. It  is  a  waste  of  time  and  labor,  as  the  hoe  will 
surely  have  to  be  used  in  order  to  keep  the  weeds 
down.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  corn  is  check-rowed 
nothing  but  a  two-horse  cultivator  will  be  needed  to 
keep  the  field  perfectly  clean.  Before  the  corn  comes 
up,  harrow  thoroughly,  twice  being  usually  sufficient. 
This  is  better  than  cultivating,  and  leaves  the  ground 
smooth  and  in  excellent  condition. 

In  planting  large  areas  the  two-horse  planter  may 
be  used,  and  should  it  be  necessary  to  irrigate  the 
crop  up,  a  small  furrow  may  be  made  at  one  side 
of  the  row  for  that  purpose.  Corn  ground  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  so  dry  as  to  cause  the 
leaves  to  curl,  as  some  farmers  persist  in  doing  and 
advise  others  to  do.  Keep  the  ground  moist.  The 
matter  of  thorough  cultivation  should  not  be  over- 
looked, as  is  too  often  the  case.  As  a  rule  corn  should 
be  cultivated  four  times  during  the  season.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  the  more  thorough  the  cultivation 
the  more  satisfactory  will  be  the  result.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  disturb  the  roots  during  the  last  culti- 
vation or  after  the  spur  roots  begin  to  form.  It  has 
been  said  that  a  handful  of  salt  placed  around  the 
hills  at  the  time  of  tasseling  will  prevent  the  ravages 
of  the  boll  worm  in  the  end  of  the  ears. 

Egyptian  Corn. — Plow  the   ground  into  ridges 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD   CROPS.  223 

three  or  four  feet  apart,  run  the  water  through  deep 
furrows,  then  level  the  ridges  down  and  with  a  disc 
harrow  stir  the  soil  perfedlly  and  cut  it  fine.  Then 
when  it  is  completely  level  plant  with  a  double-row 
corn  planter.  A  single  one  will  answer,  of  course,  but 
the  better  is  the  double-row  planter  with  the  check- 
row attachment,  letting  a  boy  work  the  handles  as  fast 
as  he  can  conveniently,  so  as  to  drop  four  or  five  seeds 
in  a  place,  and  not  more  than  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  The  planters  make  the  rows  three 
feet  eight  inches  apart,  which  is  convenient  for  culti- 
vation. The  disc  harrow  which  is  used  for  ridging 
and  cultivating  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best  cultivators, 
although  any  cultivator  which  can  be  used  for  corn 
will  serve  the  purpose.  The  ground  being  well  watered 
before  planting,  the  seed  should  germinate  and  make 
a  growth  of  at  least  eight  or  ten  inches  before  any  cul- 
tivation is  needed.  Then  throw  a  slight  ridge,  or, 
with  the  disc  set  to  leave  a  good  center  furrow,  throw 
a  ridge  on  either  side  of  the  corn,  but  not  letting  it 
bury  the  corn.  Leave  it  with  this  cultivation  until  it 
is  eighteen  inches  high,  without  further  watering. 
Then  in  the  furrows  which  have  been  made  by  the  cul- 
tivator give  the  ground  a  thorough  soaking,  and  as 
soon  as  possible  afterward  go  through  with  the  culti- 
vators. Then  there  is  no  objecftion  to  hilling  the  plant 
somewhat.  This  will  be  the  only  cultivation  necessary 
to  complete  the  growth  of  the  crop.  If  planted  before 
the  first  of  May,  it  ought  to  be  ready  for  harvesting 
in  August.  After  the  corn  has  been  removed,  another 
thorough  watering  between  the  rows  will  put  the 
ground  in  excellent  condition  for  another  cultivation. 


224  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

which  will  insure  a  rapid  growth  of  suckers  from  the 
root  of  the  plant.  It  will  throw  up  a  mass  of  new 
growth,  which  will  not  mature  grain,  but  which  will 
make  from  two  to  four  tons  of  fine  forage  to  the  acre. 
Kindred  crops  such  as  Jerusalem  com,  Kafir  corn, 
sorghum,  dhourra,  Milo  maize,  imphees,  teosinte,  and 
other  non-saccharine  forage  crops  which  have  become 
quite  popular  of  late  years  in  the  arid  region,  may  be 
irrigated  and  cultivated  substantially  the  same  as 
Egyptian  corn.  When  sorghum  is  grown  for  syrup 
it  needs  a  good  deal  of  irrigation  up  to  a  certain  point 
— that  is,  when  it  has  commenced  its  adlive  growth, 
after  which  water  should  be  applied  sparingly;  other- 
wise the  sap  will  be  diluted  and  impaired  in  quality. 
No  water  should  be  given  within  a  month  of  cutting. 
Broom  corn  needs  but  little  water  if  the  cultivation  is 
conscientiously  done.  At  the  time  of  the  heading  out 
of  the  panicle,  however,  water  should  be  given  plenti- 
fully to  force  a  good  growth  of  brush  and  produce  a 
smooth,  long,  and  straight  fiber.  Of  course  when  ex- 
cessive drouth  is  prevalent  all  these  crops  must  be  irri- 
gated more  frequently,  say  once  a  month,  in  order  to 
induce  a  steady  growth.  The  various  millets  should 
receive  the  same  treatment  virtually  as  prescribed  for 
broom  corn. 

In  raising  millet  at  the  higher  altitudes  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  irri- 
gate more  than  is  absoluely  necessary  to  keep  the  crop 
from  drying  out. 

Beans. — The  ground  should  be  plowed  at  least 
eight  inches  deep.  A  sandy  loam  is  much  preferable  to 
a  heavier  soil.    After  the  ground  is  plowed  it  should  be 


IRRIGATION    OP   FIELD    CROPS.  225 

thoroughly  irrigated.  When  sufficiently  dry  plant  the 
beans  in  rows  twenty-eight  inches  apart,  three  or  four 
beans  to  every  foot.  Irrigate  as  soon  as  three  or  four 
leaves  appear,  which  will  be  within  a  week  after  they 
come  up.  As  soon  as  dry  thoroughly  cultivate.  Irri- 
gate again  about  the  time  that  they  are  in  bloom,  and 
give  one  or  two  light  irrigations  afterw^ard,  thoroughly 
cultivating  the  ground  after  each  irrigation.  We  have 
found  that  the  best  method  of  irrigating  is  by  ditching 
with  a  single-shovel  plow  and  irrigating  in  every  other 
row  alternately.  The  water  should  not  be  permitted 
to  come  in  contadl  with  the  plants.  Beans  should  be 
planted  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past.  The  prepa- 
rations for  irrigation  may  be  made  with  the  first  culti- 
vation, and  the  space  between  the  rows  should  be  util- 
ized for  the  watercourse.  Irrigation  should  take  place 
in  ordinary  dry  weather  at  least  once  every  ten  days, 
and  the  crop  needs  plenty  of  moisture,  especially  while 
the  plants  are  in  blossom.  If  after  the  blossom  is  com- 
plete the  weeds  show  a  preponderance  of  growth, 
threatening  to  choke  the  progress  of  the  crop,  a  shallow 
cultivation  should  be  given,  and  this  will  terminate  the 
work  for  the  season.  After  the  pod  has  fully  formed 
there  will  be  less  necessity  for  water,  and  as  a  rule  the 
bean  requires  no  irrigation  after  the  legumes  are  half 
grown,  for  the  crop  is  then  made  and  the  harvest  cer- 
tain. The  best  way  to  harvest  is  with  a  machine 
working  something  like  a  horse-rake.  Threshing  se- 
cures the  beans.  For  field  varieties  we  prefer  such 
sorts  as  the  Mexican,  Red  and  White  Kidney,  Lima 
and  the  Marrow,  rather  than  the  Navy,  which,  how- 
ever, is  largely  produced  by  some  growers. 


226  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

Peas. — This  crop  may  be  planted  for  either  grain 
or  forage,  and  in  a  general  way  the  handling  of  the 
crop  is  not  materially  different  from  that  for  beans. 
Planting  should  be  done  by  the  first  of  April,  and  un- 
less the  season  is  an  exceptionally  dry  one,  irrigation 
about  the  first  of  July,  or  just  at  the  blossoming  period, 
is  all  that  is  demanded.  For  grain  the  peas  may  be 
sown  in  drills,  or  broadcast.  Forty  pounds  to  the  acre 
in  the  former  case  and  sixty-five  in  the  latter  are  about 
right.  If  broadcasted  the  seed  should  be  lightly 
plowed  under.  For  forage  growth  alone  it  is  best  to 
sow  broadcast  two  and  one-half  bushels  an  acre  of  the 
smaller  Canadian  field  pea,  and  three  to  three  and  one- 
half  bushels  of  the  Marrowfat.  Then  cross-plow  the 
seed  under  not  less  than  four  inches  deep.  Add  to 
these  one  bushel  of  oats  an  acre,  and  after  the  seed  is 
well  put  in  mark  out  the  field  furrows  about  the  same 
as  for  grain.  It  is  always  best  to  irrigate  when  the 
peas  are  in  blossom,  and  then,  when  they  are  past  the 
boiling  stage  and  the  pods  are  green  enough  to  dry  and 
hold  the  grain,  cut  them  with  a  mowing-machine, 
throwing  each  swath  out  of  the  way.  For  hay  do  not 
allow  the  ground  to  dry,  as  prolific  growth  of  vine  is 
what  is  desired.  Some  years  it  will  take  four  or  five 
irrigations,  while  other  years  three  will  be  found  suffi- 
cient. The  great  secret  in  raising  pea  hay  is  in  curing 
it.  For  small  crops  the  best  way  is  to  cut  the  vines 
with  a  hand  scythe,  and  let  them  lay  as  cut  for  twenty- 
four  hours;  then  take  a  fork  and  make  them  into  large 
cocks,  which  should  remain  undisturbed  for  a  period  of 
two  weeks,  by  which  time  they  are  well  cured.  Never 
open  them.     When  they  are  ready  to  stack  simply  turn 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD   CROPS.  227 

the  cocks  over  one  day  before  drawing  them  in,  as  the 
bottom  of  the  cock  will  be  found  to  contain  enough 
moisture  to  make  them  mold  in  the  stack  if  not  dried 
before  hauling.  Peas  put  up  in  this  way  will  be  as 
green  in  January  and  February  as  they  were  in  the 
previous  June  and  July. 

Rice. — In  growing  this  crop  by  irrigation  in  the 
south  it  is  best  to  selecfl  a  tradl  of  level  land,  which 
should  lie  so  that  it  may  be  surrounded  by  a  low  levee, 
for  the  purpose  of  retaining  the  water  on  the  field.  It 
is  plowed  into  beds  fifty  feet  in  width,  thoroughly  pul- 
verized, and  put  into  condition  to  receive  the  seed. 
Eighty  to  ninety  pounds  of  rice  to  the  acre  is  sown 
with  a  seeder  in  the  latter  part  of  March,  or  in  April, 
sometimes  as  late  as  June,  though  the  late-sown  rice  is 
not  so  apt  to  make  a  good  crop  as  the  earlier  sown. 
After  seeding,  the  ground  is  thoroughly  harrowed, 
that  all  the  seed  may  be  well  covered  ;  then  the  harrow 
is  followed  with  a  roller,  in  many  instances,  to  crush 
down  clods  and  lumps,  and  make  a  good,  smooth  seed- 
bed. When  the  young  rice  has  grown  to  four  or  five 
inches  in  hight  irrigating  is  begun,  usually  by  pumps, 
putting  on  an  average  of  two  inches  of  depth  of  water 
over  the  whole  field,  but  not  enough  to  cover  the 
young  plants.  As  the  rice  grows  the  water  is  increased 
in  depth,  following  the  growth  of  the  rice  with  the 
water,  until  there  is  a  depth  of  six  to  ten  inches  over 
the  whole  field.  This  depth  is  maintained  until  the 
rice  is  headed  out,  and  the  grain  formed  and  grown 
well  out  of  the  milk  ;  in  fadl,  until  the  dough  stage,  as 
it  would  be  called  in  wheat.  At  this  time  the  water  is 
drawn  off  the  land,  and  by  the  time  it  has  dried  out  so 


228  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  binder  can  be  run,  the  rice  is  ripe  and  ready  to  cut. 
It  is  cut  with  the  ordinary  self-binding  harvester,  is 
shocked  up  in  shocks  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  bundles 
each,  these  shocks  well  capped  with  four  bundles 
broken  down  at  the  band,  and  then  left  until  well 
cured  and  ready  for  the  separator. 

Flax. — This  is  one  of  the  negle(5led  crops  of  the 
United  States,  but  it  is  coming  into  favor  more  com- 
monly here  in  the  west.  The  crop  requires  but  little 
moisture,  and  if  furnished  early  in  the  season  insures  a 
yield.  Flax  may  be  sown  any  time  in  May,  for  good 
results,  though  as  late  as  the  middle  of  June  is  not  ob- 
jedlionable  if  the  ground  at  that  time  is  found  to  con- 
tain enough  moisture  to  germinate  the  seed  and  pro- 
mote plant  growth.  Not  less  than  forty-five  pounds 
of  seed  should  be  sown  on  an  acre,  while  fifty  pounds 
will  give  better  results  in  most  cases.  The  yield  of 
flaxseed  varies  all  the  way  from  eight  to  twenty-five 
bushels  to  the  acre.  It  should  be  sown  in  drills  nine 
inches  apart,  or  if  broadcast  the  corrugated  roller  may 
be  profitably  employed.  As  the  crop  is  grown  mostly 
for  fiber,  the  value  of  which  depends  greatly  upon  the 
length  and  fineness  of  the  stems,  it  should  be  kept 
growing  steadily,  and  may  be  irrigated  every  three  or 
four  weeks  with  light  heads  calculated  to  sink  deep 
into  the  soil,  so  as  not  to  coax  the  roots  toward  the 
top.  After  the  plants  are  three-quarters  grown  with- 
hold the  w^ater  and  thus  give  the  fiber  a  chance  to 
ripen  properly  before  cutting. 

The  plant  while  growing  is  very  tender,  and  ex- 
treme care  must  be  used  in  irrigating.  Water  must 
not  be  allowed  to  stand  on  the  land  after  an  irrigation 


IRRIGATION    OF    FIELD    CROPS.  229 

or  the  plants  will  scald.  Use  the  smallest  amount  of 
water  possible  for  irrigation.  The  plants  will  stand 
fully  as  much  dry  weather  as  oats,  and  a  few  showers 
of  rain  at  the  right  period  might  make  a  full  crop 
without  irrigation  even  in  the  arid  regions.  It  should 
be  cut  as  soon  as  the  majority  of  the  bolls  show  a  light 
brown  color  and  the  seed  itself  the  same  color,  not 
waiting  for  the  straw  to  turn,  for  the  seed  will  shell  if 
left  until  the  straw  ripens.  Almost  any  harvester  can 
be  used,  but  do  not  use  the  binding  attachment.  It  is 
better  to  have  a  man  follow  the  machine,  putting  about 
a  half  dozen  gavels  in  a  shock  with  the  heads  up,  and 
if  the  work  is  properly  done  these  small  shocks  will 
soon  settle  and  withstand  any  amount  of  rain  without 
heating  or  sprouting. 

Leave  the  bunches  in  the  field  until  ready  to  thresh 
and  then  haul  diredtly  to  the  machine  without  stack- 
ing, using  a  hay-rack  upon  which  is  placed  a  wagon  or 
stack  cover  to  catch  the  loose  seed.  A  good  yield  of 
flaxseed  under  irrigation  should  be  fifteen  bushels  an 
acre,  although  here  in  Colorado  we  have  produced 
crops  averaging  twenty-eight  bushels  an  acre.  The 
ground  should  be  left  level  and  smooth  after  sowing,  so 
that  the  straw  may  be  cut  as  low  as  possible.  If  the 
land  could  be  watered  diredlly  after  cutting  it  would 
make  a  quick  second  growth  and  excellent  fall  feed. 
Some  people  have  thought  that  flax  culture  could  not 
be  successfully  practiced  on  the  high  plateaus  of  the 
arid  region  for  the  reason  that  the  woody  substance  of 
the  straw  could  not  be  rotted  so  as  to  make  the  fiber 
in  condition  to  hetchel,  but  quite  to  the  contrary  this 
is  the  country  to  perfedlly  put  the  straw  in  condition 


230  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

to  work  the  fiber  out  of  it.  A  ditch  can  bemade  lead- 
ing to  a  bed  in  which  to  place  the  straw  so  as  to  turn 
on  water,  and  when  at  the  right  stage  the  water  may 
be  drawn  off  and  the  fiber  worked  at  the  will  of  the 
grower.  The  climate  is  such  that  the  fiber  can  be  air- 
dried  in  the  open. 

Hemp. — Irrigation  very  much  improves  this  crop 
as  it  does  flax.  The  land  is  laid  off  into  beds  three 
feet  wide,  with  spaces  of  a  foot  between  each  plat.  The 
seed  is  sown  on  these  beds  after  the  entire  field  has  re- 
ceived a  good  preparatory  soaking.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  beds  are  reserved  for  cultivating  and  irrigat- 
ing. After  the  seed  has  germinated  a  good  irrigation 
is  given  through  the  furrows,  and  the  water  is  best 
applied  when  run  slowly,  so  that  it  will  seep  through 
the  beds  from  each  side.  Every  ten  days  the  field 
should  be  irrigated  until  within  a  fortnight  of  the  flow- 
ering period,  when  watering  should  cease.  If  irri- 
gated during  the  flowering  the  pistillate  flowers  are 
weakened  in  fertilization  and  there  will  be  a  decreased 
seed  crop.  As  soon  as  the  pollen  has  been  shed  the 
stamina te  stalks  should  be  pulled  out,  so  as  to  give 
more  room  for  the  ripening  of  the  seed.  It  is  quite 
necessary  through  all  hemp  culture  to  keep  the  soil 
well  moistened,  but  not  so  saturated  as  to  be  classed  as 
too  wet. 

Cotton. — But  few  crops  need  so  little  water  as 
does  cotton,  the  only  essential  point  being  to  keep  the 
soil  in  a  moist  condition.  Plow  high  ridges  or  beds 
four  and  one-half  feet  wide,  much  the  same  as  for 
hemp,  but  provide  the  irrigating  furrow  lengthwise  in 
the  middle,  using  a  small  shovel-plow  for  this  purpose. 


IRRIGATION  OF  FIELD   CROPS.  23! 

Give  the  beds  a  good  preparatory  irrigation.  Sow  the 
seed  an  inch  deep  in  opened  drills  and  press  down 
firmly  after  depositing  the  seed.  If  the  bed  has  had 
a  liberal  soaking,  as  described,  but  one  more  irrigation 
usually  is  required,  and  this  should  be  given  as  the 
plants  begin  to  boll.  The  plowing  is  done  in  Febru- 
ary and  the  sowing  takes  place  in  March. 

Hops. — This  crop  will  grow  on  a  great  variety  of 
soils,  but  the  deep  alluvial  river  bottom  mixed  with 
clay  will  produce  the  best  quality  and  greatest  quan- 
tity. While  hop  roots  must  have  moisture,  and  in 
friable  lands  will  go  deep  in  search  of  it,  wet  lands  are 
not  the  best  and  are  even  unsuitable.  Hops  are  per- 
ennial, and  when  set  in  kindly  soil  the  roots  will  go 
down  several  feet  and  will  draw  moisture  from  very 
great  depths  in  any  weather,  unless  prevented  by  a 
hard  subsoil.  To  secure  the  best  results  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  seledl  soil  that  is  naturally  drained, 
or  that  which  is  thoroughly  underdrained  before 
planting.  A  yard  set  6x6  feet  will  give  1,031  hills 
to  the  acre.  Take  the  sets  from  the  pruned  runners 
and  cut  them  in  pieces  so  as  to  have  three  pairs  of  eyes 
to  each  piece.  Plant  these  pieces  at  the  proper  dis- 
tances, being  careful  to  place  them  three  or  four  inches 
deep.  Thus  when  the  land  washes  level  the  crown 
will  be  under  the  ground.  The  first  move  toward  cul- 
tivating a  crop  is  the  pruning.  This  should  be  done 
early.  All  runners  should  be  removed  and  the  crown 
cut  back,  when  found  growing  above  the  surface. 
Heavy  pruning  is  not  desirable,  especially  on  light 
soil.  Neither  is  it  well  to  omit  pruning  altogether  in 
any  year.     Irrigation  can  be  done  by  flooding,  or  by 


232  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

furrows,  the  latter  being  the  better  plan,  and  once 
every  three  or  four  weeks  will  suffice.  The  water 
should  run  for  twelve  hours  at  a  time,  and  a  good 
wetting  just  as  the  buds  are  forming  is  very  beneficial. 
No  water  should  be  put  on  after  the  1 5th  of  August, 
as  the  crop  is  then  guaranteed. 

Tobacco. — The  soil  should  be  carefully  prepared 
before  time  to  transplant  from  the  frames.  Irrigation 
furrows  between  the  three-foot  rows  should  be  made 
deep  and  must  be  in  readiness  so  that  the  water  may 
follow  closely  upon  the  setting  out.  If  the  soil  is 
moist  the  plants  may  be  set  and  the  damp  earth  firmed. 
If  the  soil  is  dry  a  puddle  should  be  made  for  the 
roots,  and  a  small  irrigating  stream  should  be  allowed 
to  trickle  past  until  the  plants  take  new  root.  Trans- 
planting is  done  the  same  as  with  cabbages  or  toma- 
toes, and  the  modern  plan,  where  the  acreage  is  large, 
is  to  use  the  transplanting  machine  drawn  by  a  team. 
This  machine  has  an  automatic  jet  of  water  for  each 
hill  as  the  plant  is  set,  and  is  a  great  labor-saving 
device.  Frequent  cultivation  is  necessary,  but  water 
should  be  applied  very  cautiously.  Too  much  water 
causes  the  tobacco  to  *  *  f  rench  ' '  and  become  worthless. 
If  not  enough  water  is  used  the  plants  will  soon  wither 
and  parch,  thus  becoming  of  no  use  as  a  crop.  The 
tops  should  be  pinched  out  after  the  plants  reach  a 
hight  of  thirty  inches.  This  topping  process  will  be 
followed  by  a  crop  of  suckers  equal  in  number  to  the 
leaves  on  each  plant.  These  must  be  removed  twice, 
at  least,  before  the  tobacco  is  ready  for  cutting.  One 
irrigation  during  the  middle  period  of  growth  is  usu- 
ally sufficient  for  tobacco,   providing  the  cultivation 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD   CROPS.  233 

has  been  carefully  attended  to.  If  the  soil  is  excep- 
tionally dry  and  warm,  however,  irrigation  may  occur 
every  ten  days  after  a  month  from  the  transplanting, 
but  no  moisture  to  the  root  is  needed  after  the  plants 
are  topped.  In  arid  America  the  leaves  need  artificial 
sprinkling  to  produce  salable  fiber.  The  ordinary 
fruit  tree  sprayers  may  be  used  and  the  plants  given 
two  or  three  light  showers  in  the  early  evening  after 
the  plants  begin  to  ripen.  This  will  supply  the  defi- 
ciency in  air  moisture  and  cause  the  fibers  to  thicken 
and  become  more  solid. 

Potatoes. — Here  is  something  that  requires  scien- 
tific irrigation.  The  ground  intended  for  an  irrigated 
crop  should  be  a  smooth  piece,  having  sufi&cient  slope 
to  make  the  water  run  freely  between  the  rows.  It 
should  be  plowed  eight  inches  deep,  or  more,  and  then 
harrowed  and  dragged  until  the  soil  is  firm  through- 
out and  thoroughly  pulverized  on  the  surface.  Lay 
off  the  ground  in  rows  three  and  one-half  feet  apart 
with  a  corn  marker,  or  a  small  shovel  which  will 
make  a  .shallow  furrow,  the  rows  running  the  same 
way  the  ground  slopes,  if  it  is  not  too  steep.  A  slope 
of  seven  to  ten  feet  to  the  mile  gives  good  results. 
The  distance  apart  in  the  rows  depends  upon  the 
variety.  If  the  Early  Ohio,  which  grows  the  smallest 
vines  of  any  variety ,  be  used  I  would  advise  planting 
ten  inches  apart  in  the  row.  If  the  Peach  Blow, 
which  grows  the  largest  vines  of  any  variety,  be  used, 
I  would  advise  a  distance  of  twenty-one  inches  apart. 
The  rows  should  be  from  three  feet  to  three  feet  six 
inches  apart.  The  closer  you  have  the  rows,  and  yet 
be  able  to  work  with  horses  conveniently,  the  better, 


234  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

because  the  more  compa<5l  the  mat  of  tops  of  the  vines 
the  better  the  ground  will  be  prote<5led  from  the  dire(5l 
rays  of  the  sun — so  that,  after  irrigation,  the  moisture 
may  be  retained  in  the  ground,  as  the  potato  delights 
in  a  cool,  moist  soil.  Cover  by  throwing  up  from  each 
side  a  good  slice  with  a  two-horse  stirring  plow.  This 
will  cover  the  potatoes  to  a  good  depth  and  leave  them 
in  ridges  for  irrigation.  We  always  make  it  a  point 
to  give  the  prepared  ground  a  good  flooding  before 
planting  unless  the  heavens  have  wept  copiously  to 
moisten  the  ground.  We  plant  in  Colorado  from 
May  2oth  to  June  loth.  For  seed  we  prefer  the 
half-cut  tuber,  although  this  is  a  matter  of  one's  own 
judgment. 

When  the  sprouts  appear  above  ground  we  go  over 
the  patch  with  a  slant-tooth  drag  to  loosen  the  soil. 
There  is  no  danger  of  injuring  the  plant  in  this  way. 
We  are  not  able  to  say  just  when  potatoes  should  be 
irrigated.  In  that,  as  in  size  of  seed,  no  rule  will  hold 
good.  Some  varieties  require  more  water  than  do 
others,  and  some  soils  require  more  than  others. 
.Water  applied  too  soon  will  often  turn  the  vines  yellow 
and  permanently  check  their  growth.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  ground  is  very  dry  at  the  period  when 
potatoes  are  setting,  as  we  term  the  formation  of  the 
young  tubers,  it  often  happens  that  no  after  application 
of  the  water  will  remedy  the  matter,  and  a  short  crop 
is  the  result.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  much  better  for 
the  crop  that  the  vines  should  attain  a  good  degree  of 
growth  and  be  well  in  blossom  before  water  is  applied, 
but  there  is  no  fixed  rule  as  to  this.  When  the  ground 
gets  very  dry  and  hot,  and  the  vines  turn  dark-colored 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIEI.D   CROPS.  235 

and  cease  to  grow,  water  becomes  a  necessity  at  no 
matter  what  season,  unless  the  crop  has  already  or 
nearly  matured. 

If  the  spring  has  been  cold  and  very  backward,  and 
the  subsoil  is  still  lacking  in  warmth,  it  will  be  found 
fatal  to  the  potato  plant  to  apply  water,  even  if  the  soil  is 
very  dry.  It  has  been  found  that  soils  that  are  heavily 
manured  will  take  water  at  an  earlier  date  in  the  spring 
without  injury  to  the  plant  than  will  poor,  thin  soils; 
also  by  reason  of  the  undecayed  manure  applied,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  water  sooner  than  on  unmanured  soil. 
One  good  watering  will  often  mature  a  crop  of  pota- 
toes, but  if  the  growth  of  vines  is  heavy  and  shades 
the  ground  well,  two,  or  even  three,  waterings  will  in- 
crease the  yield,  and  can  in  no  ordinary  case  injure 
it.  Each  application  of  water  should  be  followed  im- 
mediately with  thorough  cultivation  until  the  vines  are 
too  large  or  the  tubers  too  near  grown  to  permit  of  it. 
Nothing  is  so  damaging  to  a  growing  crop  as  to  leave 
the  furrow  or  gutter  in  which  the  water  has  run  to 
bake  and  dry  in  the  sun.  Even  when  the  advanced 
growth  of  the  vines  and  tubers  will  not  permit  it  near 
the  base  of  the  hill,  cultivation  may  still  continue  with 
profit  as  long  as  the  furrow  is  in  sight  in  the  middle 
of  the  row. 

In  watering,  it  is  best  not  to  try  to  run  water 
"'through  too  long  rows.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  not  to  have 
the  rows  over  40  rods  in  length.  If  the  ground  is  very 
steep,  of  course,  the  water  will  run  quickly  through, 
but  it  will  have  to  run  longer  than  in  a  row  with  less 
fall,  to  give  it  time  to  soak  in  ;  and  if  the  rows  are  too 
long,  by  the  time  the  water  is  through  and  the  lower 


236  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

end  is  wet  enough,  the  upper  end  will  have  had  too 
much.  If  the  ground  has  too  little  fall,  the  least  clod 
will  clog  up  the  rows  and  flood  the  surface.  See  that 
there  is  a  free  opening  at  the  lower  end  of  each  row,  or 
the  water  will  back  up  in  row  after  row  for  rods,  and 
flood  and  ruin  the  crop.  In  sandy  soils  water  should 
not  continue  to  run  more  than  three  or  four  hours, 
while  in  tenacious  soils  the  irrigation  may  continue 
eight  or  ten  hours  at  a  time. 

After  once  irrigating  it  is  very  important  that  the 
ground  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  dry,  thus 
stopping  the  growth  of  the  potato.  For  if  we  permit 
the  growth  of  a  potato  to  stop,  and  by  irrigation  it 
again  starts  to  grow,  it  will  either  increase  irregularly 
in  size  or  set  a  second  crop,  thus  giving  a  large  number 
of  small  potatoes  or  a  crop  of  ill-shaped  ones.  The 
irrigation  is  usually  discontinued  about  the  first  of 
September,  although  if  it  is  a  dry  fall  a  later  irrigation 
may  be  needed.  A  potato  field  under  irrigation  is  the 
subjedl  of  Fig.  61. 

Around  Greeley,  Colorado,  where  potatoes  are  so 
successfully  raised,  though  they  may  appear  to  need 
water,  the  farmers  are  careful  not  to  irrigate  them  until 
after  the  young  tubers  are  set.  The  reason  for  this  is 
obvious.  When  irrigated  immediately  before  setting, 
a  greater  number  of  potatoes  will  be  formed  than  the 
plant  can  properly  support,  few  of  them  becoming  large 
enough  for  market.  When  the  tubers  are  allowed  to 
form  first  and  are  irrigated  afterwards,  fewer  potatoes 
will  form  in  each  hill,  but  a  large  crop  of  marketable 
tubers  is  the  result.  Keeping  the  ground  mellow  by 
thorough  and  deep  cultivation  is  important.     If  the 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD    CROPS. 


237 


ground  is  dry,  irrigate  some  time  before  beginning  to 
set.  If  kept  too  wet,  a  large  amount  of  tops  and  few 
potatoes  will  be  produced. 

Never  flood  the  potato  field  nor  allow  the  water  to 
reach  the  crown  or  stem  of  the  plants.  Always  bear 
in  mind  that  it  is  the  roots  and  not  the  tubers  that  are 
to  be  watered.  By  the  time  the  plants  are  four  or  five 
inches  high  the  roots  are  several  times  that  long  and  no 


FIG.    61 — IRRIGATING  A    CROP   OF    POTATOES. 


more  deep  cultivation  should  be  given  them.  Use 
some  form  of  cultivator  that  will  keep  about  two  inches 
of  the  surface  thoroughly  pulverized.  As  said  before, 
it  is  advisable  on  sandy  loam  as  soon  as  planting  is 
done  to  harrow  with  the  row,  using  bull-tongues  set  to 
run  as  deep  as  possible  next  to  the  row,  the  outside 
ones  being  set  shallow.  As  the  potatoes  begin  to  grow 
reverse  the  shovels,  running  the  outside  deep  and  the 
inside  ones  shallow,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  roots.   The 


238  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

more  recently  invented  weeders  are  considered  better 
than  the  harrow,  as  they  are  hghter,  the  teeth  are  finer 
or  closer,  do  not  injure  the  tops,  and  as  they  require  but 
one  horse  much  tramping  on  the  ground  is  prevented. 
They  destroy  all  weeds  in  the  rows,  thereby  saving 
considerable  hand-work.  It  is  better  to  avoid  irrigat- 
ing during  hot  sultry  weather,  for  if  the  soil  is  allowed 
to  become  too  dry  the  potato  plants  are  weakened. 
When  irrigated  at  such  time  the  conditions  conducive 
to  fungous  diseases,  such  as  blight  and  rust,  are  bound 
to  prevail. 

Since  the  first  appearance  of  ' '  Irrigation  Farming  ' ' 
some  of  the  older  and  more  experienced  spud  growers 
in  the  famous  district  around  Greeley,  Colorado,  where 
as  many  as  20,000  carloads  of  marketable  potatoes  are 
grown  in  one  season,  have  changed  their  views  regard- 
ing the  proprieties  of  irrigation.  Experience  and  prac- 
tice are  entirely  different  now.  As  the  growers  began 
'jK^to  apply  manure  in  quantities  to  the  land  in  order, 
primarily,  to  increase  the  fertility  and  the  resulting 
yield,  they  made  some  discoveries  :  First,  that  the 
plants  needed  more  water  or  the  manure  would  bum 
them,  and,  further,  that  with  richer  soil  and  more  plant- 
food,  rendered  soluble  and  available  by  water  and  cul- 
tivation, potatoes  could  stand  more  irrigation  and 
earlier  in  the  season,  not  only  without  injury  but  with 
material  and  perceptible  benefit.  Now  they  apply 
twice  the  amount  of  water  they  formerly  thought  either 
safe  or  necessary.  At  one  time  in  the  history  of  potato 
farming  near  Greeley  the  growers  calculated  that  if  it 
became  necessary  to  irrigate  potatoes  to  bring  them  up 
the  chances  were  about  even  between  total  failure  if 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD   CROPS.  239 

they  did  not  put  on  the  water  and  a  pradlically  com- 
plete failure  if  they  did  so. 

The  moment  the  growers  get  done  planting  nowa- 
days, if  the  ground  is  too  dry  to  germinate  the  seed, 
and  if  the  prospe(5l  of  copious  rainfall  is  not  extremely 
favorable,  no  one  fears  and  very  few  hesitate  to  furrow 
out  the  ground  and  turn  on  the  water  at  once.  If  the 
seed  is  in  fair  condition  it  is  the  uniform  experience 
that  the  young  plants  will  push  themselves  through 
the  earth  in  an  astonishingly  short  time  and  grow  vig- 
orously after  they  come  up.  Two  irrigations  were 
formerly  considered  sufficient  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances as  to  the  rainfall  to  mature  an  average  crop 
and  three  irrigations  under  the  conditions  of  extreme 
drouth.  As  the  country  grows  older  and  improved 
methods  of  cultivation  supersede  the  first  primitive 
efforts,  as  the  soil  increases  in  humus  by  liberal  coatings 
of  manure,  or  by  the  turning  under  of  masses  of  green 
alfelfa,  rich  in  nitrogen  and  other  plant-foods,  more 
and  more  water  is  necessarily  required  to  produce  the 
best  results. 

In  many  instances  the  potatoes  are  irrigated  from 
four  to  eight  times,  and  when  there  is  sufficient  supply 
of  water  the  growers  do  not  hesitate  to  run  water  down 
the  potato  rows  once  every  week  from  the  time  it  first 
becomes  necessary  or  advisable  to  irrigate  until  the 
growth  of  tubers  and  vines  is  completed.  It  must  be 
understood,  however,  that  this  condition  prevails  only 
when  the  soil  is  well  drained,  thoroughly  enriched 
with  manure  or  alfalfa,  and  cultivation  is  thorough. 
The  strong  point  in  the  whole  business  is  to  keep  the 
ground  at  an  even,  moist  temperature.     In  very  dry 


240  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

seasons  this  subjedl  of  moisture  becomes  a  good  deal  of 
a  worry  and  water  has  to  be  doled  out  sparingly.  In 
certain  localities  around  Greeley  large  reservoirs  have 
been  construdled  to  supply  sufficient  irrigation,  and 
farmers  living  under  these  reservoirs  are  fortunate  in 
being  so  advantageously  situated.  With  short  water 
the  need  of  cultivation  becomes  more  imperative  and 
must  be  conscientiously  carried  out. 

Sweet  Potatoes. — The  most  successful  growers 
find  it  best  to  plant  the  seed  in  hotbeds  about  the  last  of 
March.  The  seed  will  yield  two  and  three  sets  of 
plants,  which  are  transplanted  in  the  open  ground  from 
the  first  of  May  to  the  first  of  July.  Seed  potatoes 
weigh  from  two  ounces  to  one  pound,  and  the  trans- 
planting is  done  when  the  plants  are  eight  to  twelve 
inches  long.  The  field  is  plowed  twelve  inches  deep 
and  the  rows  are  thrown  up  three  and  one-half  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  are  set  eighteen  inches  apart  in 
the  row.  This  requires  8,500  plants  to  an  acre.  The 
irrigating  water  follows  closely  upon  the  work  of  trans- 
planting, and  in  ten  days  another  irrigation  may  be 
given  with  a  good  head  of  water,  which  is  let  on  for 
five  or  six  hours.  Irrigations  continue  at  intervals  of 
two  weeks  or  oftener,  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
weather,  until  the  tubers  are  half  grown,  when  irriga- 
tion is  discontinued.  Do  not  put  on  too  much  water, 
and  it  should  not  come  up  more  than  two-thirds  the 
hight  of  the  ridges,  if  it  can  be  helped.  The  ground 
is  not  disturbed  during  the  growing  season  by  cultiva- 
tion, but  the  weeds  are  hoed  off  close  to  the  ground 
once  or  twice  during  the  season. 

In  harvesting,  a  furrow  is  plowed  on  one  side  and 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD    CROPS.  24I 

close  Up  to  a  row  of  potatoes,  then  the  return  furrow 
on  the  other  side  throws  the  tubers  out  and  they  are 
picked  up  by  hand.  After  the  transplanting  is  done 
the  roots  go  directly  down  to  the  hard  surface  of  the 
under  soil,  and  the  potato  grows  in  an  upright  position 
from  that  point.  The  Bermudas  are  the  largest  variety, 
and  the  Nansemonds  are  the  smaller  ones,  while  a 
most  popular  market  variety  is  the  Jersey  Sweet. 

Sugar-Beets. — The  seed-bed  should  be  thoroughly 
pulverized,  to  kill  the  young  weeds,  just  before  plant- 
ing. As  soon  as  tlie  ground  is  warm  the  seed  should 
be  planted  two  inches  deep,  in  drills  from  sixteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  apart.  If  hand-planted,  ten  to  fif- 
teen pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  sufficient.  If  drilled 
in,  use  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed.  Any  good 
garden  drill  will  di:),  and  grain  drills  can  be  used  by 
closing  some  of  the  openings.  The  earth  should  be 
pressed  close  to  the  seed  by  a  following  wheel  with  a 
two-inch  tire,  on  the  principle  of  the  press  drills.  The 
depressed  seed  row  a(5ls  as  a  catch-basin  for  any  slight 
rainfall,  and  at  the  same  time  shelters  the  seed  from 
drying  winds.  Rolling  the  whole  ground  has  proved 
injurious,  as  it  brings  all  the  soil  moisture  to  the  sur- 
face to  be  swept  away  by  the  dry  wind.  Seed  drilled 
on  ridges  remains  dry  in  the  arid  climate  until  the  fur- 
rows between  are  filled  with  irrigation  water.  Culti- 
vation tends  to  uncover  the  tops  of  beets  growing  on 
these  ridges,  and  the  uncovered  portion  is  unfit  for 
sugar. 

If  the  ground  be  so  dry  that  the  seed  must  be 
irrigated  it  should  not  be  flooded,  for  thereby  many 
seeds  will  be  washed  away  and  the  sprouting  seeds 


242  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

force  their  way  with  difficulty  through  the  resulting 
caked  surface.  Shallow  irrigating  furrows  should  be 
made  midway  between  the  rows,  and  the  water  will 
reach  the  seeds  by  seepage.  These  furrows  can  be 
made  at  the  time  of  drilling  by  an  attachment  like  a  corn- 
row  marker,  which  could  also  be  used  separately  after 
drilling.  If  the  ground  is  moist  enough  to  bring  up 
the  seed,  the  irrigating  furrows  need  not  be  made  until 
the  operation  will  kill  many  sprouting  weed  seeds. 
Further  cultivation  can  be  done  with  a  hand  hoe  or 
the  many  forms  of  garden  and  horse  cultivators.  The 
soil  should  be  kept  mellow.  The  more  cultivation  the 
more  sugar.  Hilling  is  not  necessary,  as  good  varieties 
of  sugar-beets  grow  very  little  root  above  ground. 
When  the  beets  have  from  four  to  six  leaves  they 
should  be  thinned  to  single  plants  four  to  eight  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  Thin  to  four  inches  in  very  rich 
ground  and  to  more  than  eight  inches  in  very  poor 
ground.  The  long  roots  of  the  beets  gather  so  much 
moisture  from  the  subsoil  that  they  require  less  irriga- 
tion water  than  do  the  shallow-rooted  grains  and 
grasses.  During  the  fall  the  beet  requires  a  dry  sur- 
face soil  to  increase  its  saccharine  content,  and  will 
thrive,  getting  all  the  moisture  it  needs  from  the  sum- 
mer irrigated  subsoil.  Stop  the  irrigation  early. 
Guard  against  seepage  from  surrounding  land,  and, 
above  all,  avoid  such  an  excess  of  water  as  to  flood  the 
ground  or  accumulate  in  pools  on  any  portion  of  it. 
Irrigators  of  sugar-beets  learn  to  use  less  water  each 
year. 

The  foregoing  instrudtions  apply  to  beets  grown 
for  the  sugar  fadlories.     Producing  them  for  live  stock 


IRRIGATION   OF    FIELD    CROPS.  243 

demands  more  frequent  wetting  and  a  forced  habit  of 
growth  throughout.  We  have  reHed  upon  from  four 
to  seven  irrigations  in  a  season  of  subsoiled  land,  and 
have  had  the  most  flattering  success  when  the  water 
was  applied  at  least  every  fortnight  from  the  first  of 
June. 

Turnips,  Beets,  and  Carrots. — These  may  be 
irrigated  at  any  time,  the  only  care  necessary  being  to 
keep  the  ground  mellow  and  in  good  tilth.  Field  tur- 
nips for  live-stock  feeding  should  be  sown  broadcast 
about  the  first  of  August.  Set  out  the  irrigating  fur- 
rows every  six  or  ten  feet,  according  to  the  porosity  of 
the  soil,  and  have  them  run  at  an  easy  grade.  Wait 
long  and  patiently  for  the  seed  to  germinate  before 
irrigating  for  that  purpose.  Never  flood  turnip,  pars- 
nip, or  carrot  ground,  as  the  water  would  rot  the 
crowns ;  undersoaking  is  the  thing.  Give  frequent 
irrigations  until  the  root  has  fully  formed.  After  the 
plants  are  large  enough  to  shade  the  ground  irrigation 
is  scarcely  necessary,  and  it  might  prove  an  injury  and 
cause  decay. 

Such  roots  do  best  on  black,  loamy  soil,  containing 
much  decomposed  vegetable  mold,  but  like  most  crops 
will  grow  anywhere  and  yield  in  proportion  to  land, 
cultivation,  and  general  conditions.  The  soil  should 
be  thoroughly  pulverized,  leveled,  and  rolled  before 
sowing.  Deep  plowing  is  not  necessary,  and  some 
successful  growers  merely  loosen  the  surface  with 
garden  cultivators.  Seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  or 
drilled  in  rows  about  fifteen  inches  apart.  Two  or 
three  pounds  of  seed  will  plant  an  acre.  A  slight 
covering  is  sufficient,  and  some  growers  cultivate  lightly 


244  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

after  sowing  and  marking  out  irrigating  ditches  for 
turnips  as  closely  as  twenty  inches  apart  if  sown  broad- 
cast. When  sown  in  drills  clean  cultivation  by  shallow 
plowing  or  harrowing  will  increase  the  yield  and  make 
more  uniform  roots.  Weeds  must  be  kept  down  to 
insure  good  results.  Irrigation  by  the  furrow  system 
is  no  doubt  best  unless  there  is  some  method  of  sub- 
surface water  in  use.  Small  plants  require  moisture 
but  will  not  stand  much  water,  and  therefore  should 
be  irrigated  very  sparingly.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  run 
the  water  through  the  small  ditches  just  long  enough 
to  moisten  the  surface  on  each  side.  Too  much  water 
will  cause  the  soil  to  bake  or  become  soggy,  and 
shorten  the  yield  in  proportion  to  the  excess  of  irriga- 
tion. The  writer  believes  that  in  field  culture  of 
turnips  better  results  will  be  realized  by  the  use  of  the 
corrugating  roller  instead  of  plowing  out  the  furrows 
in  the  old-fashioned  way. 

Canaigre. — This  is  a  species  of  dock- weed  coming 
into  great  popularity  in  the  southwest  on  account  of 
the  tannic  acid  contained  in  the  roots.  The  tubers 
must  be  planted  in  the  early  fall,  much  the  same  as 
potatoes.  With  rain  or  irrigation  in  the  fall  the  leaves 
appear  and  a  new  crop  of  roots  is  formed.  The  irriga- 
tion should  begin  by  Ocftober  ist,  and  the  soil  should 
be  kept  moist  through  the  winter  and  up  to  May  ist, 
after  which  no  more  water  is  needed  until  August  ist, 
the  harvest  taking  place  late  in  September.  Deep  cul- 
tivation should  be  pra(5licied  after  each  irrigation,  and 
between  times  if  the  land  •  requires  it.  With  most 
lands  five  irrigations  should  be  given  the  year's  crop 
and  at  least  as  many  cultivations.     An  average  yield 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIELD   CROPS.  245 

is  anywhere  from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  to  the  acre, 
and  the  crop  is  gathered  with  a  potato  digger. 

Meadows. — Grasses  may  be  irrigated  at  almost 
any  time  during  the  season.  The  best  native  hay 
grasses,  the  blue  stems,  poas,  timothy,  fescues,  grama, 
etc.,  produce  stems  just  underneath  or  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Wherever  these  underground  stems  or 
rootstalks  are  broken,  other  stems  and  leaves  will 
grow.  If  these  grasses  are  not  thick  enough,  a 
thorough  harrowing  in  the  spring  before  the  water  is 
turned  on  answers  the  double  purpose  of  breaking  up 
the  rootstalks,  causing  the  sod  to  thicken,  increasing 
the  yield  and  leaving  the  ground  in  the  best  condition 
for  absorbing  water.  Native  meadows  should  be  sup- 
plied with  comparatively  large  amounts  of  water  in  the 
spring  before  the  stalks  begin  to  shoot,  if  the  rainfall 
has  been  insufficient.  No  water  should  be  given  any 
hay  crop  for  some  length  of  time  before  it  is  to  be  cut. 
This  allows  the  plant  to  store  up  larger  amounts  of 
nutrition,  and  the  ground  is  firm  and  in  good  condition 
for  cutting  and  curing  the  hay.  Alfalfa  and  other 
clovers,  where  more  than  one  crop  is  to  be  harvested 
in  the  season,  .should  be  quickly  and  thoroughly  irri- 
gated soon  after  the  previous  crop  has  been  removed. 
One  irrigation  is  usually  sufficient  for  each  crop.  The 
same  treatment  should  be  given  native  meadows  which 
are  to  be  used  for  pasture.  The  stubble  is  easy  to 
irrigate,  and  in  this  condition  the  plants  need  moisture 
to  enable  them  to  put  forth  a  new  growth. 

In  England  meadow  irrigation  is  quite  commonly 
pracfliced.  In  many  places  a  tide  of  rainwater  is 
turned  into  stockyards  having  descending  surfaces,  the 


246  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

water  running  through  the  manure  and  carrying  the 
fertilizing  material  into  a  large  pond  at  the  lower  side 
of  the  yard.  The  pond  thus  serves  as  a  reservoir  for 
the  water,  which  has  gathered  the  best  elements  of 
the  manure  it  passed  through  in  flowing  to  the  pond. 
At  the  farther  side  of  the  pond  a  plug  of  wood  four  to 
six  inches  thick  and  four  feet  long  is  inserted  in  a  pipe 
under  the  water,  the  pipe  extending  four  to  six  feet 
into  a  small  watercourse  in  an  adjoining  pasture. 
This  watercourse  has  only  a  little  descent,  sufficient  to 
let  water  flow  along  it.  After  heavy  showers  the 
plug  is  drawn,  and  the  water  and  manure  it  contains 
let  through  the  pipe  into  the  pasture,  where  it  is  ap- 
plied both  in  irrigating  and  fertilizing.  The  result  is 
a  very  large  crop  of  grass. 

There  is  no  crop  grown  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  in  which  the  use  of  water  becomes  an  abuse  as 
in  t!ie  irrigation  of  hay  meadows  or  vegas.  The  ex- 
travagant application  of  water  in  such  irrigation  has 
become  an  evil,  the  extent  of  which  has  become  almost 
proverbial.  Over  a  large  part  of  the  country  where 
meadows  are  irrigated  for  the  produc5lion  of  hay,  it  is 
the  common  pra<flice  to  turn  the  water  on  the  land 
just  as  early  in  spring  as  it  can  be  run  through  the 
ditches,  ordinarily  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  it 
runs  continuously  until  about  the  middle  of  July, 
being  turned  off  only  long  enough  before  mowing  to 
allow  the  land  to  dry  out,  so  the  water  will  not  inter- 
fere with  the  work  of  haymaking.  This  time  varies 
in  different  places  from  one  day  to  two  weeks  before 
mowing  begins.  Some  farmers  turn  the  water  off  the 
meadows  the  day  before  they  begin  to  cut  the  grass, 


IRRIGATION   OF   FIKI.D   CROPS.  247 

and  depend  upon  the  land  drying  rapidly  enough  so 
the  moisture  will  not  interfere  with  curing  the  hay. 
Others  even  go  so  far  as  to  run  the  mowing-machine 
right  along  under  a  few  inches  of  water. 

Various  reasons  are  given  for  turning  the  water  on 
the  meadows  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring.  The 
water  draws  the  frost  out  of  the  soil,  softening  the 
land  so  the  grass  can  make  an  early  start  and  produce 
larger  growth  than  if  held  back  naturally  by  the  cold 
weather.  Where  the  soil  is  covered  with  alkali  the 
white  incrustations  of  salts  interfere  with  the  growth 
of  grass  and  keep  the  land  cold  by  refledling  the  sun's 
rays.  If  the  water  can  be  run  over  the  land  enough 
to  wash  off  the  alkali  or  dissolve  it  and  carry  it  into 
the  soil,  the  grass  thickens  up  and  makes  a  good  crop. 
Whatever  the  reason,  it  is  evident  that  ranchmen,  as  a 
rule,  believe  in  irrigating  native  hay  land  as  early  and  as 
long  as  possible,  and  all  use  the  most  water  when  the 
largest  amounts  can  be  obtained  from  the  streams, 
which  is  during  May  and  June.  The  writer  is  not  in 
accord  with  this  pradlice,  and  has  never  advised  such 
extravagant  procedure. 

In  preparing  to  seed  the  land  for  a  meadow  the 
ground  to  be  irrigated  should  not  only  be  fine  in  tex- 
ture before  seeding,  but  it  should  also  have  a  smooth, 
even  surface  to  facilitate  irrigation.  Knough  time 
may  be  thus  saved  in  a  single  seavSon's  irrigation  to  pay 
the  extra  expense  of  careful  leveling.  The  better  the 
condition  of  the  soil  the  less  the  quantity  of  seed  re- 
quired and  the  greater  the  certainty  of  a  perfe(5l  stand 
and  satisfadlory  vega.  It  is  a  mistake  to  expedl  the 
best  or  even  good  results  from  a  single  kind  of  grass. 


248 


IRRIGATION    FARMING. 


No  fewer  than  four  or  five  varieties  should  constitute 
the  mixture  to  be  sown,  especially  for  pasture,  and,  as 
a  rule,  the  greater  the  number  the  better  the  stand. 
Since  each  grass  has  a  different  time  of  maturity  a 
number  of  kinds  will  be  more  likely  to  furnish  a  suc- 
cession of  green,  succulent  pasture  throughout  the 
season  than  a  few.  Some  grasses  start  earlier  than 
others  in  the  spring  and  some  hold  out  longer  in  the 
fall.  The  best  pastures  in  the  west  contain  a  dozen 
kinds  of  grasses  and  clovers,  and  supply  continuous 
grazing  during  the  season,  though  frequent  irrigation 
is  required.  For  pastures  under  irrigation  the  follow- 
ing mixtures  are  recommended  : 


For  upland :  lbs. 

Kentucky  blue-grass 30 

Perennial  rye  grass 85 

Red  top .  30 

Orchard  grass 15 

Tall   fescue ....  15 

Red  clover 10 

Alfalfa,  or  alsike 10 

White  clover 15 


Total 


For  marshy  lands: 

Red  top 70 

Perennial  rye 50 

Creeping  bent 25 

Alsike  clover 30 

Total 175 


For  low,  moist  lands:  lbs. 

Red  top 50 

Perennial  rye  grass 40 

Creeping  bent 20 

Meadow  fescue 20 

Timothy 10 

Alsike  clover 25 

White  clover 10 

Total 175 

For  light.,  sandy  soil: 

Kentucky   blue-grass 40 

Red    fescue 80 

Tall  oat  grass 25 

Smooth  brome 25 

White  clover 10 

Total 180 


Each  of  the  mixtures  given  contains  enough  to  sow 
five  acres.  The  new  Bromus  inermis,  or  Hungarian 
brome  grass,  which  has  been  creating  considerable  in- 
terest throughout  the  west  during  the  past  few  years, 
is  more  valuable  for  pasture  than  for  hay,  and  does  not 
require  nearly  .so  much  irrigation  as  the  other  intro- 


IRRIGATION   OP   FIELD   CROPS.  249 

duced  varieties,  such  as  are  named  in  the  foregoing 
table.  Its  great  fault,  however,  lies  in  the  fac5l  that 
it  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  avoid  winter-killing  in 
exposed  positions,  especially  during  the  first  winter, 
and  for  this  reason  its  utility  remains  somewhat  in 
doubt. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
IRRIGATION  OF   THE  GARDEN. 


T"""^  HERE  is  no  part  of  the  farm  that  ought  to  re- 
_,  ceive  more  attention  in  the  way  of  cultivation 
^^M  and  irrigation  than  the  garden,  and  it  is  here 
that  the  most  flattering  results  may  be  ob- 
tained as  the  reward  for  one's  labor.  The  first  thing 
to  be  done  after  securing  a  suitable  location  is  to 
thoroughly  break  and  pulverize  the  soil.  As  irriga- 
tion is  an  essential  element  of  success,  the  garden  spot 
should  be  harrowed,  leveled  and  rolled,  so  that  water 
can  easily  be  carried  to  all  parts  equally.  After  many 
years  of  careful  observation  and  experience,  the  writer 
is  constrained  to  say  that  it  is  a  better  plan  to  have  the 
garden  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  with 
the  narrow  and  highest  end  abutting  on  the  lateral. 
In  this  way  the  water  may  easily  be  taken  from  the 
ditch,  and  if  the  rows  of  crops  run  the  entire  length  of 
the  patch  there  will  be  no  difficulty  from  applying 
water  to  one  crop  at  the  expense  of  another. 

Fig.  62  gives  the  diagram  of  a  well-laid-out  garden 
after  the  style  of  these  suggestions.  The  lateral  is 
represented  by  a;  6  shows  the  measuring-box  or  flume, 
c  the  head-flume  or  box  at  the  head  of  the  furrows, 
and  d  shows  the  gates  or  checks  at  the  head  of  each 
row.  If  possible  to  do  vSO,  it  is  always  best  to  flood  the 
land  before  preparing  the  ground.  Then  when  dry 
enough  to  work,  prepare  and  plant  at  once,  and  the 
250 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   GARDEN. 


251 


seed  will  always  come  up  before  it  needs  watering 
again.  For  radish,  peas,  lettuce,  and  turnips  it  is  best 
to  prepare  the  ground  level  and  flood.  Have  the  rows 
straight  and  the  proper  distance  apart  for  cultivation 

and  irrigation.      Plant . 

the  early  varieties  ad- 
joining each  other,  so 
that  the  land  can  be 
used  a  second  time  dur- 
ing the  season.  The 
objecff  should  be  to  get 
as  much  as  possible 
from  a  small  patch 
instead  of  using  too 
much  land  and  thus 
neglecffing  the  entire 
garden.  Lettuce,  rad- 
ishes, peas,  beans,  and 
turnips  are  short-lived 
vegetables.  Their  days 
are  soon  numbered,  and 
the  space  they  occupied, 
as  early  produ(5ls,  can 
be  used  a  second  or 
third  time  during  the 
season.  They  should  therefore  be  planted  in  such 
manner  as  to  leave  the  unoccupied  land  all  in  one  plat. 
The  scene  in  Fig.  63  gives  a  good  idea  of  a  garden 
under  irrigation. 

Asparagus. — A  light  sandy  loam  is  preferable. 
Plow  very  deep,  turning  under  a  heavy  coat  of  manure. 
Run  two  or  three  times  for  a  deep  furrow  in  which 


a 

r» 

a 

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^         d     3.     A      d     d     1       ^ 

- 

■ 

■J    • 

•^ 

•^ 

^     -t 

*■  4; 

'^S^ 

^ 

-fe 

%■  ^'4- 

®  * 

-^ 

-g- 

^  ^' 

i^  ^ 

-«g^ 

^ 

^ 

^  ■>&' 

s> « 

f 

^ 

^  ^' 

®p 

«^ 

4 

^ 

'^  ^ 

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-^ 

^  4 

«'  s 

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s*^ 

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4 

%.  ^ 

®  t 

-^ 

^ 

^ 

^  ^ 

&# 

-*«? 

% 

-^ 

■«55fc- 

FIG.    62 — DIAGRAM    OF   GARDEN. 


252 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


to  plant.  Set  the  roots  down  four  to  six  inches  below 
the  even  surface  of  the  garden  and  draw  the  soil 
back  into  the  furrow.  One  or  two  rows  across  the 
garden  will  be  all  that  is  needed  for  family  use.  If 
more  than  one  row,  make  them  four  feet  apart  and  set 
a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  in  the  row.  Set  early  in  the 
bpringi     To  irrigate,  run  a  furrow  with  a  light  plow  a 


FIG.    63 — IRRIGATED    GARDEN. 

foot  or  so  from  the  row,  and  water  well  without  per- 
mitting the  water  to  leave  the  furrow.  As  soon  as  the 
soil  is  dry  enough,  run  the  cultivator  down  the  rows  to 
fill  the  furrow  and  keep  the  soil  from  baking.  Repeat 
the  process  as  often  as  water  is  needed  and  cultivate 
frequently.  The  writer  sets  two-year-old  roots,  using 
the    Colossal    and    Palmetto    varieties.      We   find    it 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   GARDEN.  253 

advisable  to  hoe  the  soil  gradually  up  to  fomi  a 
ridge  two  feet  wide  over  the  plants,  thus  leaving  a  fur- 
row of  equal  width  between  the  ridges.  In  this  way 
the  roots  of  the  plants  are  covered  by  a  great  depth  of 
soil,  and  as  the  surface  of  the  ridge  to  the  depth  of 
twelve  inches  is  loose  and  dry,  no  attempt  is  made  by 
the  roots  to  push  their  way  upward.  When  the  young 
shoots  start  to  grow  they  have  to  push  through  a  con- 
siderable space  of  loose  soil  on  the  ridges,  and  they  can 
be  cut  at  a  point  seven  or  eight  inches  below  the  sur- 
face as  soon  as  the  tips  appear  above  ground  and  be- 
fore they  begin  to  get  green.  Asparagus  is  rather 
partial  to  water,  and  irrigation  may  go  on  every  ten 
days  or  two  weeks  during  the  cutting  season,  wi.\ile 
once  a  month  thereafter  will  suffice. 

Celery. — The  writer  never  had  knowledge  of  a 
garden  crop  that  needs  more  water  than  does  celery. 
It  does  best  in  a  soil  that  is  naturally  moist  and  is  sup- 
plied with  an  abundance  of  vegetable  matter.  The 
market  gardener  generally  raises  two  crops  of  celery — 
early  and  late.  The  early  crop  is  usually  disposed  of 
during  the  late  summer  and  fall  months,  while  a  late 
crop  is  stored  for  winter  and  spring  use.  For  an 
early  crop  the  seed  is  sown  about  the  first  of  March  in 
a  moderate  hotbed,  in  drills  two  inches  apart.  The  soil 
should  be  made  very  rich  and  the  bed  well  watered,  to 
give  the  plants  a  good  start. 

When  the  plants  have  grown  to  a  fair  size,  they  are 
usually  transplanted  into  a  cold  frame.  However,  this 
practice  of  transplanting  celery  is  rapidly  disappearing. 
Experience  has  proven  beyond  a  doubt  that  celery  so 
treated  will  produce  a  larger  per  cent,  of  plants  that  go 


254  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

to  seed,  and  therefore  become  worthless.  The  plants, 
while  in  the  seed-bed;  should  be  shorn  off  at  least  twice, 
in  order  to  make  them  stocky  and  form  a  quantity  of 
fibrous  roots.  When  the  plants  have  attained  the 
propel  size — that  is,  from  three  to  four  inches — they 
should  be  transplanted  into  their  permanent  bed, 
which  must  be  well  fertilized  with  short  and  well-rotted 
manure,  in  rows  five  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  set 
eight  inches  apart  in  the  row.  After  transplanting  the 
plants  they  should  be  given  a  good  soaking  by  running 
the  water  down  the  rows,  and  if  the  weather  is  dry 
they  must  be  irrigated  at  least  once  every  week  or  ten 
days  and  cultivated  after  each  irrigation.  Some  grow- 
ers are  more  extravagant  than  this  and  irrigate  as  fre- 
quently as  three  times  a  week.  In  six  weeks  from  set- 
ting, the  plants  will  be  large  enough  to  be  handled  or 
banked.  This  is  best  done  by  throwing  up  a  furrow 
on  each  side  of  the  row,  and  pulling  the  earth  close  to 
the  plants  with  a  hoe.  Then  commence  at  one  end  of 
the  row  and  gather  up  all  the  leaves,  holding  them 
with  one  hand  and  pushing  the  soil  close  to  the  plants 
with  the  other.  This  operation  must  be  repeated 
several  times.  When  the  plants  are  desired  to  be 
bleached  they  must  be  banked  up  to  the  tips  of  the 
leaves.  Late  celery  is  handled  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  early,  differing  from  it  only  in  three  or  four 
points.  The  seed  is  sown  six  weeks  later  in  a  well- 
prepared  bed  out  of  doors,  and  as  it  is  intended  for 
winter  and  spring  use,  it  must  not  be  banked  up  as 
much  as  the  early  crop,  for  if  it  is  bleached  when 
stored  away  it  will  not  keep. 

The  Sabula  Celery  Company,  of  Iowa,  has  been 


IRRIGATION    OF   THB   GARDEN.  255 

trying  a  novel  experiment  for  the  irrigation  of  its 
celery  field,  which  is  proving  a  big  success  in  every 
way.  The  irrigating  is  done  by  means  of  rows  of  til- 
ing laid  in  the  ground  about  a  foot  below  the  surface. 
The  tiling  cannot  be  placed  together  snug  enough  to 
be  water-tight,  and  at  every  coupling  the  water  forces 
itself  through  the  joints.  Rows  of  tiling  are  laid  every 
twelve  feet,  and  these  are  supplied  by  a  long  ditch  fur- 
nished with  a  number  of  gates  which  regulate  the 
water  -  supply,  the 
ditch  being  filled  by 
a  large  pump,  and  a 
piece  of  land  that 
would  ordinarily 
take  three  or  four 
men  three  days  to 
irrigate  may  now  be  ^^^'  64— section  of  tiled 

J  •        ^-L     .  CELERY  BED. 

done    in  that  many 

hours  with  the  help  of  these  men.  A  drop  of  two  feet 
on  two  acres  is  given  the  tiling,  and  the  lower  end  is 
securely  closed,  which  gives  the  water  considerable  back 
pressure.  A  se(5lion  of  this  tiling  is  given  in  Fig.  64. 
Of  late  years  some  gardeners  are  adopting  what  is 
known  as  the  new  celery  culture.  By  this  method  the 
crop  is  planted  closely,  and  no  carting  or  handling  is 
required,  for  as  the  plants  struggle  for  light  they  nat- 
urally assume  an  upright  position.  The  light  is 
excluded  below  and  the  self-blanching  kinds  become 
white  and  tender.  With  so  heavy  a  crop  on  the 
ground  a  great  deal  of  water  is  necessary.  One 
gardener  plants  6x6  inches  each  way,  which  gives 
^    hundred    and    seventy    thousand    plants    to    the 


256  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

acre,  and  the  irrigation  given  is  two  or  three  times  a 
week. 

Beets. — These  need  rich  garden  soil  with  plenty  of 
humus.  Sow  from  March  15th  to  April  15th.  For 
first  early  the  Egyptian  is  all  right,  the  Eclipse  coming 
next  in  order,  the  Blood  Turnip  variety  still  later, 
while  the  mangel-wurzel,  for  stock  feeding,  comes  last 
in  planting  order.  We  do  not  believe  in  the  pra(5lice 
of  irrigating  the  seeds  before  they  germinate.  Table 
beets  may  be  given  more  irrigation  than  is  allotted  to 
the  sugar-beet,  and  for  early  growth  they  may  be  irri- 
gated every  fortnight  during  rainless  seasons.  Culti- 
vation the  second  day  after  irrigation  is  quite  as 
essential  as  the  irrigation  itself.  The  soil  should  be 
kept  as  mellow  as  possible,  and  it  is  well  to  have  the 
rills  located  six  or  eight  inches  away  from  the  plants, 
so  that  water  may  not  come  in  contadl  with  them,  as 
flooding  is  considered  injurious. 

Radishes. — This  popular  relish  crop  may  be  pro- 
duced in  greatest  perfecflion  by  irrigation.  Light 
sandy  loams  well  enriched  are  best.  The  first  crop 
should  be  planted  by  March  15th,  and  others  at  fre- 
quent interv^als  thereafter.  Long  scarlet  varieties  are 
preferable  for  this  planting.  For  general  summer  use 
the  early,  round,  dark  red  are  good,  and  for  fall  and 
winter  we  sow  the  Chinese  Rose.  It  is  best  to  plant 
the  seed  in  rows  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart, 
and  give  an  abundant  amount  of  water  at  all  stages  of 
growth.  No  root  crop  requires  more  water  than  does 
the  radish,  and  once  a  week  during  dry  periods  is  not 
too  often  to  irrigate.     Cultivate  the  same  as  for  beets. 

Carrots   and   Parsnips. — Sow  the  seed  a  half 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   GARDEN.  257 

inch  deep,  or  even  deeper  on  very  light,  sandy  soils. 
The  rows  should  be  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches 
apart.  Give  frequent  irrigation  until  the  roots  are 
fully  formed.  These  wettings  may  be  from  four  to 
seven  days  apart,  according  to  the  natural  condition  of 
the  soil.  Stop  the  irrigation  as  soon  as  the  plants  are 
large  enough  to  shade  the  ground,  as  there  is  then 
danger  of  rotting  the  roots  in  the  ground  and  thus 
ruining  the  crop.  In  no  instance  allow  the  plants  to 
become  flooded  after  they  are  half  grown,  as  this 
would  surely  so  injure  the  crowns  as  to  spoil  the  crop. 
This  rule  must  also  be  observed  in  irrigating  salsify, 
the  general  conditions  of  which  are  the  same  as  those 
of  carrots.  With  the  oyster-plant,  cultivation  is  of 
more  value  than  is  irrigation,  and  in  any  event  make 
it  a  rule  not  to  irrigate  after  the  plant  is  half  grown 
or  well  under  way. 

Turnips. — The  seed  of  the  turnip  may  be  sown  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  For 
fall  and  early  winter  use  grow  the  White  Dutch,  for 
winter  use  and  early  spring  the  White  Egg.  The  seed 
and  turnips  can  be  grown  the  same  season.  Finely 
pulverized  new  soil  is  the  best.  Sow  broadcast  the 
first  of  August,  drag  the  ground  with  a  light  harrow, 
then  make  irrigating  furrows  every  six  feet.  Wait 
long  and  patiently  for  the  seed  to  germinate  before 
irrigating  for  that  purpose.  Never  flood  the  turnip 
ground — undersoaking  is  much  the  better.  The  best 
success  is  the  result  of  careful  preparation  and  close 
attention. 

Horseradish. — This  root  flourishes  in  deep,  rich, 
moist  soil  which  can  be  kept  so  by  an  irrigation  every 


258  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

few  days.  It  is  grown  or  propagated  from  sets  or 
pieces  of  small  roots  cut  at  least  four  inches  long,  with 
the  upper  end  square  and  the  lower  end  slanting.  The 
ground  is  well  manured,  deeply  plowed,  and  thoroughly 
harrowed  or  otherwise  put  in  good  condition,  then 
marked  out  in  rows  from  two  to  three  feet  apart.  In 
these  the  root  pieces  are  planted,  fifteen  or  eighteen 
inches  apart.  The  planting  is  done  by  making  a  hole 
with  a  long,  slim  dibble  or  planting-stick,  or  with  a 
small,  light  iron  bar,  and  dropping  the  set,  square  end 
down,  into  it,  so  that  the  top  end  is  left  a  little  below 
the  surface.  Then  press  the  soil  firmly  against  the 
set.  Keep  the  cultivator  or  wheel  hoe  going  till  the 
top  growth  renders  further  working  unnecessary.  The 
sets  should  be  planted  out  in  May  or  June.  Catch 
crops  of  beets,  lettuce,  and  spinach  can  be  planted 
along  with  the  horseradish  and  harvested  before  the 
horseradish  has  made  much  headway.  Irrigation 
every  week  until  the  sets  take  new  root  is  advisable, 
and  the  growth  may  be  pushed.  After  the  plants  are 
well  established  they  will  require  less  water.  When 
its  roots  once  get  into  the  soil  they  live  and  thrive 
until  forcibly  exterminated  by  being  rooted  up.  But 
if  allowed  to  grow  at  its  own  free  will  without  cultiva- 
tion, the  plant  degenerates  rapidly  and  becomes,  in  a 
few  years,  scarcely  fit  for  table  purposes,  for  which  it 
is  now  used. 

Onions. — There  are  two  methods  of  applying  water 
to  onions — by  flooding  and  by  furrows.  Some  men 
objec5l  to  flooding,  but  the  writer  has  no  objection  to 
charge  against  it  so  long  as  it  is  done  in  the  right 
manner.     For  flooding,  the  ground  may  be  laid  off  in 


IRRIGATION   OF  THE   GARDEN.  259 

beds  from  ten  to  fifteen  or  even  twenty  feet  in  width 
and  ten  rods  long.  The  size  of  the  beds  will  be  gov- 
erned somewhat  by  the  water-supply.  The  beds 
should  be  level,  and  it  is  better  to  have  them  level 
lengthwise,  and  they  may  have  a  slight  incline.  If 
the  beds  are  level  lengthwise  the  soil  can  be  wet  to 
any  desired  depth.  Water  may  be  turned  on  until  it 
stands  an  inch  deep  all  over  the  bed,  which  would  be 
equivalent  to  a  rainfall  of  one  and  one-half  to  two 
inches,  or  it  may  be  turned  on  to  a  depth  of  six  inches, 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case.  If  the 
bed  has  an  incline  the  lower  end  should  be  left  open, 
allowing  the  water  to  pass  off,  else  that  end  will  re- 
ceive a  great  deal  more  water  and  the  ground  will 
become  packed. 

The  soil  should  have  moisture  enough  at  the  time 
of  planting  to  germinate  the  seed.  If  the  ground  con- 
tains an  abundance  of  moisture  when  the  seed  is  sown 
it  may  not  be  necessary  to  irrigate  for  a  month  after 
the  plants  are  up,  but  the  proper  time  to  apply  the 
water  must  be  determined  by  each  individual  case. 
The  first  application  of  water  in  the  spring  should  be 
light,  as  the  soil  is  then  loose  and  absorbs  water  much 
more  rapidly  than  it  does  later  in  the  season.  As  soon 
after  irrigating  as  the  soil  begins  to  dry,  and  before  it 
has  had  time  to  bake,  it  is  run  over  with  the  wheel 
hoe,  just  skimming  the  surface,  followed  with  the  cul- 
tivator teeth.  It  then  lies  in  this  condition  until  dry 
enough  to  require  another  irrigation,  and  so  on  through 
the  season.  This  leaves  the  soil  loose  and  mellow  after 
each  irrigation,  and  thoroughly  exposed  to  the  chemi- 
cal adlion  of  the  atmosphere.     During  the  heat  of  the 


26o  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

season  the  crop  will  need  irrigating  once  a  week,  and 
sometimes  twice,  depending  a  great  deal  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Toward  the  latter  part  of  the 
season  it  is  unnecessary  to  be  so  particular  about  stir- 
ring the  soil  after  each  irrigation.  When  the  first 
tops  begin  to  fall  down  irrigation  should  cease. 

For  furrow  irrigation  the  onions  are  planted  on 
level  ground,  the  same  as  when  irrigation  is  not  prac- 
ticed. The  rows  should  be  about  fourteen  inches 
apart.  Run  a  Planet  Junior  cultivator  between  each 
row,  and  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  teeth  will  leave  a 
small  furrow,  at  the  same  time  not  throwing  enough 
soil  on  either  side  to  interfere  with  the  plants. 
Through  each  one  of  these  furrows  run  a  very  small 
stream  of  water,  just  sufficient  to  keep  running  but 
not  large  enough  to  overflow  the  banks.  This  water 
passes  off  and  must  have  an  outlet,  and  should  run  in 
the  furrows  until  it  has  soaked  the  soil  to  the  center 
of  the  rows  for  about  six  hours.  After  the  ground  is 
sufficiently  dried  it  is  cultivated  in  the  same  manner 
as  described  in  flooding.  We  are  rather  in  favor  of 
the  furrow  system,  which  is  the  only  one  to  use  in 
* '  the  new  onion  culture, ' '  or  the  transplanting  method. 
In  doing  this  transplanting  the  water  should  follow  in 
the  furrow,  and  a  slight  ridge  for  the  sets  is  prefer- 
able. It  might  be  well  to  know  that  onions  grown 
with  too  much  water  are  apt  to  yield  scullions,  and 
the  bulbs  will  be  of  inferior  quality  and  prove  poor 
keepers.  In  no  case  would  we  advise  irrigation  oftener 
than  once  a  week. 

One  of  the  best  onion  growers  in  the  Arkansas  val- 
ley of  Southern  Colorado  gives  the  following  as  his 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   GARDEN.  261 

method  of  raising  onions  :  Prepare  the  land  by  fer- 
tilizing with  forty  or  fifty  loads  of  well-rotted  manure 
to  the  acre,  then  disk  and  cross-disk  until  the  manure 
is  well  pulverized  and  worked  into  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  Then  plow  moderately  deep  and  harrow  until 
the  soil  is  in  fine  tilth.  Use  a  marker  consisting  of 
pieces  2x6  and  eight  feet  long  cut  into  six  pieces  six- 
teen inches  long,  each  beveled  on  one  end.  When  the 
two  are  put  together  m  the  shape  of  letter  V,  so  the 
opposite  ends  will  be  ten  inches  apart,  the  six  pieces 
will  make  three  Vs.  Take  a  plank  2  x  10,  fifty-six 
inches  long,  and  nail  the  first  V  in  the  center.  Then 
nail  the  second  one  twenty- two  inches  from  point  to 
point;  then  on  the  opposite  side  nail  the  third,  mak- 
ing the  three  V's  abreast.  Take  a  pole  suitable  for  a 
tongue  fifteen  feet  long,  beveled  slightly  at  the  large 
end,  and  bolt  in  the  center  of  the  middle  V.  Do  not 
bolt  too  tight,  but  leave  a  little  play.  Put  braces  on 
each  side  of  the  tongue,  extending  three  feet  up  the 
pole.  Six  inches  from  the  front  end  of  the  tongue  put 
in  a  pin  for  the  neck-yoke  to  rest  upon.  Eleven 
feet  from  the  neck-yoke  pin  bore  a  hole  for  the 
doubletrees.  For  the  first  time  through  set  stakes, 
so  as  to  make  a  straight  furrow.  When  ready  to 
start,  the  driver  stands  on  the  marker,  so  as  to 
weight  it  down.  If  the  man's  weight  is  not  enough, 
put  on  extra  weight  until  the  plank  is  level  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  It  will  then  make  perfedl 
ridges. 

The  next  time  through  let  one  horse  walk  in  the 
outside  furrow.  One  marker  will  follow  in  the  same 
furrow,  and  will  be  a  gauge  so  that  all  will  be  alike. 


262  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Use  a  one-wheel  seed-drill  and  run  it  on  top  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  ridge.  This  will  leave  rows  twenty- 
two  inches  apart  and  will  require  three  pounds  of  seed 
to  an  acre.  To  cultivate  use  a  single-shovel  plow  with 
a  six-inch  shovel.  Nail  a  block  on  the  under  side  of 
the  beam,  so  as  to  use  the  fenders  of  a  com  cultivator 
to  keep  dirt  and  clods  from  covering  the  young  onions. 
Bolt  the  fenders  so  that  they  will  cover  one-half  of  the 
shovel.  This  will  cultivate  and  leave  the  furrows 
open  for  the  next  irrigation.  Cultivate  after  each  irri- 
gation to  obtain  best  results.  Hoe  the  plants  as  often 
as  grass  and  weeds  may  appear  on  the  top  of  the  ridge. 
To  use  the  marker  the  soil  should  be  a  little  drier  than 
for  vegetation.  After  drilling  in  sufficient  rows  follow 
with  irrigation.  Do  not  fill  the  rows  so  that  water 
will  run  over  the  top  of  the  ridges.  Let  the  water  run 
long  enough  to  sub  to  the  seed.  In  six  to  eight  days 
irrigate  again.  In  fourteen  to  eighteen  days  the 
onions  should  be  peeping  out  of  the  ground.  The 
marker  can  also  be  used  for  beets,  radishes,  lettuce, 
spinach,  and  carrots. 

String  Beans. — A  sandy  loam  is  better  than  a 
heavier  soil  for  this  crop.  The  garden  beans  should 
be  planted  in  rows  twenty-eight  or  thirty  inches  apart, 
and  they  are  to  be  drilled  in  on  ground  that  has  been 
previously  well  irrigated  if  not  damp  enough  already. 
By  this  we  mean  when  the  earth  will  ball  in  the  hand. 
The  first  irrigation  will  be  proper  when  three  or  four 
leaves  appear  on  the  young  plants.  An  irrigation  of 
three  or  four  hours'  duration  once  a  week  throughout 
the  season  will  not  be  too  frequent,  and  especially  a  good 
one  at  blossoming   time  should  be  given.     Cultivate 


IRRIGATION   OF  THE   GARDEN.  263 

thoroughly  after  each  irrigation.  The  harvest  period 
may  be  prolonged  by  planting  at  stated  intervals. 

Peas. — As  a  matter  of  fadl,  this  crop  requires  about 
the  same  treatment  as  do  beans.  The  rows  should, 
however,  be  three  feet  apart,  and  the  writer  prefers  to 
plant  on  the  north  side  of  the  ridge,  half-way  between 
the  bottom  and  top.  The  pea  will  require  plenty  of 
moisture  during  the  growing  season,  particularly  at 
the  period  of  bloom,  which  is  a  good  rule  for  all  the 
legumes.  Mellow  soil  is  quite  a  consideration,  and 
this  is  a  natural  sequence  with  irrigation  where  culti- 
vation follows.  Peas  may  receive  moisture  every  six 
or  seven  days,  and  will  flourish  under  such  care. 

Tomatoes. — This  great  crop  of  commerce  re- 
sponds profitably  to  careful  irrigation.  Seledl  a  sandy 
soil  and  make  it  fertile  by  working  in  from  twenty  to 
thirty  loads  of  well-rotted  manure,  which  is  necessary 
if  large  and  smooth  fruit  is  desired.  Poor  soil  will 
produce  a  large  percentage  of  rough  and  deformed 
fruit.  Plow  the  ground  ten  inches  deep  and  work  it 
down  smooth  with  an  Acme  pulverizing  harrow. 
Shallow  furrows  should  be  plowed  with  an  eight-inch 
plow  four  feet  apart.  Take  up  the  plants  by  running 
a  sharp  spade  under  them,  cutting  out  in  blocks. 
Having  made  the  bed  quite  wet,  no  difficulty  will  be 
experienced  in  handling  the  plants,  as  the  soil  will 
readily  adhere  to  the  roots.  For  very  large  tra(5ls  it 
will  pay  to  use  a  transplanting  machine. 

The  plants  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrows 
four  feet  apart,  and  soil  pulled  around  them  with  a  hoe 
and  well  firmed  with  the  foot.  Plants  treated  in  this 
way  will  grow  right  along,  as  if  they  never  had  been 


264  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

moved.  The  remainder  of  the  furrow  may  be  filled  up 
by  running  a  one-horse  plow  the  opposite  way  along- 
side the  plants,  which  will  also  leave  a  furrow  for  irri- 
gating. Water  should  then  be  turned  on  and  allowed 
to  run  until  the  ground  is  well  soaked  up  to  the  plants. 
The  ground  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds  by  a  narrow- 
bladed  cultivator.  When  plants  begin  to  set  fruit  use 
the  one-horse  plow  again,  this  time  running  on  each 
side  of  the  row,  which  forms  a  ridge  and  keeps  the  fruit 
out  of  the  water.  We  have  found  three  irrigations  on 
the  very  driest  soil  sufficient  up  to  the  fruiting  period. 
Too  much  water  will  raise  a  heavy  growth  of  vines 
and  interfere  with  the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  When  the 
plants  need  water  they  will  turn  dark  in  color.  They 
need  water  oftener  after  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen,  to 
keep  up  the  size  and  weight. 

One  drawback  to  the  culture  of  tomatoes  under  irri- 
gation is  a  disease  known  scientifically  as  oedema , 
which  is  a  swelling  of  certain  parts  of  the  plant, 
brought  about  by  an  excess  of  water  stretching  the 
cell  walls,  making  them  very  thin  and  the  cells  very 
large.  The  excess  of  water  may  be  so  great  that  the 
cell  walls  break  down,  and  that  part  of  the  plant  dying, 
exerts  an  injurious  influence  in  adjacent  parts.  In  an 
ordinary  rainy  season  the  irrigation  of  the  tomato  plant 
should  be  a  secondary  consideration.  In  ordinary 
moist  land  a  good  wetting  just  after  transplanting  and 
again  in  ten  days,  with  subsequent  cultivation,  are 
usually  quite  sufficient.  Too  much  water  is  a  bad 
thing  for  tomatoes.  Peppers  require  exa<5lly  the  same 
methods. 

Cucumbers. — For  this  crop  a  warm  location   is 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   GARDEN.  265 

best.  All  vines  that  belong  to  the  Cucurbita  family 
must  not  be  irrigated  much  while  the  plants  are  small, 
or  serious  damage  may  be  done  to  the  crop.  The 
ground  should  be  laid  off  by  running  shallow  furrows 
about  five  feet  apart.  It  is  best  to  irrigate  the  ground 
before  the  seed  is  planted  if  there  seems  to  be  a 
deficiency  of  moisture  rather  than  to  apply  water  after 
the  seed  is  sown,  and  unless  the  soil  is  naturally  a 
dry  one  it  will  not  require  any  more  water  until  the 
second  or  rough  leaf  is  formed,  when  another  light 
watering  will  be  necessary.  This  will  push  the  plants 
along  a  great  deal  faster  than  if  the  ground  is  kept 
very  wet.  When  the  plants  begin  to  run  and  set  fruit 
an  irrigation  should  be  given  every  ten  days  or  two 
weeks.  While  fruit  is  forming  the  irrigating  can 
hardly  be  overdone.  The  water  must  never  run  so  as 
to  come  in  dire<5l  contadt  with  the  plants,  or  the  ground 
will  bake  around  the  stems,  and  may  possibly  injure 
the  plants  by  stopping  up  the  pores  and  excluding  the 
air.  Cultivation  is  not  in  good  form  after  the  vines 
begin  to  interlock. 

The  following  plan  for  growing  cucumbers  for  the 
f  a<5lory  is  given  by  a  grower  near  Denver  :  '  *  We  plant 
in  rows  about  eight  feet  apart.  We  first  prepare  the 
ground  making  it  as  fine  as  possible.  Then  it  is  laid 
off  in  rows,  and  furrows  about  eight  inches  deep  are 
plowed  and  filled  half  full  of  well-rotted  manure.  The 
soil  is  then  raked  back  and  fined  again.  Then  we 
draw  a  line  and  drop  the  seed  about  two  inches  apart, 
pressing  them  into  the  earth  about  an  inch.  If  it 
rains  before  the  seed  comes  up  we  go  over  the  rows 
with  a  rake  to  prevent  a  crust  from  forming.     After 


266  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

they  have  put  out  the  second  leaves  they  are  thinned 
to  eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows  and  then  irrigated. 
If  the  bugs  bother  we  use  tobacco  dust.  The  tillage  is 
all  done  with  a  plow  and  no  hand-work  is  given  except 
to  pull  the  weeds  out  of  the  rows.  From  the  time 
when  the  plants  begin  to  run  and  set  fruit  we  give  an 
irrigation  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks,  and  after  the 
picking  season  opens  we  irrigate  every  other  day. 
The  cucumbers  are  always  gathered  early  in  the  morn- 
ing or  late  in  the  evening.  We  have  never  failed  to 
have  a  good  crop. ' ' 

Cabbage. — Plant  early  varieties  in  rows  two  feet 
apart  and  eighteen  inches  in  the  row.  Late  kinds 
should  be  set  three  feet  apart  in  two-foot  rows. 
Manuring  is  quite  essential,  and  if  neglecfted  in  the 
preparation  of  the  ground,  liquid  manure  may  easily  be 
supplied  through  the  furrows  and  the  plants  will  re- 
spond readily  by  putting  on  a  healthy  growth.  In 
transplanting,  the  water  should  follow  the  work,  and 
another  irrigation  should  be  given  the  succeeding  day ; 
then  lapse  a  day  and  irrigate  again.  Allow  two  more 
days  to  go  by  and  give  still  another  but  lighter  irriga- 
tion. All  this  is  done  to  assist  the  plants  to  put  forth 
new  roots  and  also  to  prevent  wilting  down.  In  irri- 
gating cabbage  it  is  essential  not  to  allow  the  water  to 
flood  the  plants  under  any  circumstances.  If  the  work 
of  preparation  and  planting  is  properly  done  the  water 
will  run  through  the  furrows  between  the  ridges,  and 
from  their  termination  will  run  from  one  furrow  to 
another,  until  all  the  field  is  finally  covered.  It  is  the 
small  running  stream  long  drawn  out  that  counts,  and 
after  a  cabbage  patch  once  receives  a  good  wetting 


IRRIGATION   OF  THE   GARDEN.  267 

subsequent  irrigations  need  not  be  so  prolonged  or 
copious.  After  the  heads  of  the  cabbage  plants  are 
half  formed  no  water  whatever  should  be  given,  on 
account  of  the  excessive  use  of  water  having  a  ten- 
dency to  cause  the  growing  heads  to  burst.  After  the 
heads  are  fully  formed  the  stalks  may  be  split  partially 
down  the  side  three  or  four  inches,  which  retards 
further  expansion. 

Cauliflower. — Set  out  and  treat  the  same  as  cab- 
bages and  the  work  is  done.  Irrigation  is  carried  on 
exadlly  the  same  as  for  the  cabbage  crop,  and  liquid 
manuring  may  be  applied  in  the  same  way.  We  have 
found  Henderson's  Snowball  the  best  early  variety. 
Then  in  order  of  maturity  come  Extra  Early  Dwarf 
Erfurt  and  Long  Island  Beauty .  with  the  World  Beater 
coming  last.  If  there  is  any  deviation  from  the  cabbage 
pradlice  of  irrigation,  more  water  than  that  ascribed  for 
the  cabbage  may  be  given. 

Watermelons. — In  Colorado  this  is  often  a  field 
crop.  The  best  soil  for  the  meldn  patch  is  a  sandy 
loam.  This  should  be  heavily  manured.  Melons  of 
all  kinds  need  an  abundance  of  humus  in  order  to 
thrive  best,  and  this  should  be  supplied  in  the  form  of 
stable  manure.  If  manure  is  plentiful,  scatter  it  thickly 
over  the  whole  field  ;  if  rather  scarce,  economize  by 
manuring  in  the  hills.  Usually  the  ground  is  plowed, 
pulverized,  then  furrowed  eight  feet  each  way  and  the 
seeds  planted  about  half-way  up  the  sides  of  the  ridges. 
It  is  better  for  the  starting  of  the  crop  if  rains  afford 
moisture  enough  to  germinate  the  seeds;  but  in  case 
of  severe  drouth,  water  is  sometimes  run  in  the  rows 
before  planting,  and   perhaps   more   frequently  after 


268  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

planting.  Sod  ground  has  advantages  in  the  matter 
of  irrigation,  as  the  soil  is  full  of  grass  roots  and  ex- 
ceedingly porous,  thus  taking  up  water  readily  from 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  and  the  moisture  finds  its 
way  to  the  plant  from  below  by  capillarity.  Cultiva- 
tion should  be  commenced  as  soon  as  the  plants  show 
above  the  ground,  and  continued  at  frequent  intervals 
until  the  growth  of  the  vines  makes  it  impracticable. 
Three  irrigations  usually  suffice  if  the  soil  be  well  cul- 
tivated, but  many  growers  irrigate  four  to  six  times, 
making  the  water  take  the  place  of  cultivation.  The 
best  melons  are  produced  with  two  or  three  irrigations 
and  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  so  long  as  possible. 
As  long  as  the  vines  show  a  frosty  appearance  in  the 
sunlight  they  are  thrifty  and  are  not  suffering  for 
water.  In  no  instance  should  irrigation  be  given  to 
the  melon  crop  after  the  fruit  is  half  grown,  as  the  last 
days  of  the  melon's  existence  in  the  field  are  needed 
for  the  chemical  a<5lion  that  is  going  on  in  changing 
the  juices  into  saccharine  by  the  crystalizing  process 
of  the  sun  and  the  adlion  of  the  air.  Flooding  is  for- 
bidden, as  it  bakes  the  ground  around  the  younger 
plants  and  induces  decay  in  the  older  ones. 

Cantaloupes. — Lay  out  the  rows  the  first  week  in 
May  and  plant  the  hills  eight  by  eight  feet,  putting  in 
long  hills  longitudinally  with  the  irrigating  furrows. 
Some  growers  turn  the  water  right  on,  having  given 
no  irrigation  before  the  seeds  are  planted.  The  plants 
should  be  irrigated  very  thoroughly  for  half  a  day, 
when  two  leaves  are  formed,  then  with  a  shovel-plow 
cover  the  water  in  the  original  furrow  so  as  to  retain 
the  moisture  in  the  soil.     Then  take  a  one-horse  five- 


IRRIGATION   OF  THE   GARDEN.  269 

shovel  cultivator  and  tear  up  the  middle  ground  both 
ways  across  the  field,  so  as  to  get  the  best  of  the  weeds. 
Take  a  hand  hoe  and  loosen  the  soil  around  the  hills. 
Irrigate  again  in  two  weeks,  beginning  the  work  at 
four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  and  allowing  the  water 
to  run  until  nine  or  ten  o'clock  at  night.  The  young 
plants  are  very  tender,  and  cold  water  is  likely  to 
clieck  their  growth,  but  if  applied  late  in  the  afternoon 
the  chill  of  the  water  is  greatly  overcome  by  the  heat 
of  the  ground.  It  is  best  to  furrow  on  one  side  only 
so  as  not  to  give  too  much  water,  and  plant  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  hill.  When  the  plants  go  to  vin- 
ing  the  hilling-up  is  done,  care  being  taken  not  to  allow 
the  plow  to  run  deep,  as  there  is  thus  danger  of  cut- 
ting the  roots,  in  which  event  the  vines  would  suffer 
severely.  Irrigation  should  continue  at  intervals  of 
every  nine  or  ten  days  throughout  the  season,  and 
more  water  is  given  after  the  blossoming  period  than 
before,  so  as  to  continue  the  formation  and  encourage- 
ment of  the  fruit  buds — thus  making  the  vines  more 
prolific  by  continuing  the  bearing  season.  The  vines 
require  more  water  during  the  fruiting  period,  and 
larger  and  better  crops  will  be  the  rule  when  plenty  of 
water  is  applied  at  this  time. 

In  recent  years  it  has  been  found  best  to  cultivate 
more  and  irrigate  less.  A  small  stream  should  be  used 
in  irrigating  and  should  be  allowed  to  run  down  the 
furrows  about  six  hours.  The  stream  should  be  regu- 
lated according  to  the  fall  of  the  land,  so  that  the  water 
will  soak  out  each  way  a  sufficient  distance  by  the 
time  it  reaches  the  end  of  the  furrows,  thus  avoiding 
waste  of  water.     An  inch  of  water  is  enough  for  each 


ayO  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

furrow  of  forty  rods.  The  cantaloupe  may  be  given 
too  much  water,  but  the  plants  should  be  kept  growing 
rapidly  by  a  moderate  application  and  a  great  deal  of 
cultivation  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground.  When 
the  fruit  is  ripening  the  supply  should  be  limited  in 
order  to  make  the  fruit  of  the  best  quality  and  to  have 
it  ripen  quickly.  Irrigations  may  be  given  during  the 
picking  season  when  necessary,  and  should  not  cease 
when  the  melons  begin  to  ripen,  as  some  have  said. 
The  most  important  work  of  growing  cantaloupes 
comes  after  the  crop  begins  to  ripen,  and  experience 
alone  will  teach  growers  the  proper  condition  at  which 
the  melons  should  be  picked,  the  best  way  of  packing, 
and  the  easiest  and  best  method  of  getting  them  to  the 
cars  and  loaded  in  good  condition.  Cantaloupes  thrive 
best  on  sandy  loam,  although  clay  loam  with  some 
sand  will  grow  melons  of  good  quality.  The  virgin 
soil  of  our  western  prairies  will  produce  the  best  qual- 
ity, providing  the  ground  is  well  worked  and 
thoroughly  soaked.  It  takes  more  water,  however, 
than  older  land.  Three  years  is  long  enough  to  plant 
melons  on  the  same  ground.  It  should  then  be  planted 
to  some  fertilizing  crop,  and  alfalfa  is  splendid  for  this 
purpose. 

Pumpkins. — For  a  pumpkin  patch  choose  a  light 
soil.  A  sandy  piece  of  bottom  is  jUvSt  the  thing,  the 
richer  the  better,  though  comparatively  poor  soil  will 
do.  After  plowing  and  harrowing  lay  off  in  check 
rows  ten  feet  each  way.  At  each  check  dig  a  small 
hole  and  put  in  one  or  two  forkfuls  of  manure,  or 
throw  out  a  double  furrow  with  the  plow  and  then 
put  the  manure  in  the  checks.     The  pumpkin  is  a 


IRRIGATION.  OF   THE   GARDEN.  27I 

coarse  feeder  and  does  not  need  the  manure  to  be 
thoroughly  rotted.  Cover  the  manure  with  three  or 
four  inches  of  earth,  making  a  perceptible  hill.  Sow- 
four  or  five  seeds  in  each  hill  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost 
is  over.  When  in  second  or  third  leaf,  thin  to  two 
plants  in  a  hill;  and  if  the  ground  is  rich  they  may, 
with  advantage,  be  again  thinned  to  one,  when  danger 
from  the  striped  bug  is  over,  about  the  time  the  plants 
begin  to  run.  They  should  be  cultivated  alternate 
ways  every  two  weeks  immediately  following  irriga- 
tion; thus  they  will  very  soon  completely  cover  the 
ground,  and  so  keep  the  weeds  down  themselves.  No 
irrigation  is  needed  after  the  pumpkin  is  half  grown 
unless  the  season  is  unusually  drouthy.  Squashes, 
eggplants,  and  gourds  are  handled  pradlically  in  the 
same  manner.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  recoUedl  that  these 
vines  require  but  comparatively  little  water  until  in 
blossom,  and  the  greater  amount  of  irrigation  should 
be  applied  from  that  time  until  the  fruit  has  grown  to 
half  size  or  over. 

Sweet  Corn. — Sweet  corn  should  be  cultivated 
and  kept  free  of  weeds,  but  irrigation  must  be  delayed 
if  possible  until  the  corn  is  in  tassel.  As  soon  as  the 
tassel  begins  to  appear  on  the  most  forward  stalks 
the  water  should  be  turned  in  and  irrigation  made 
thorough.  The  best  method  of  irrigation  is  the  furrow 
system.  This  should  be  carefully  arranged  so  as  to 
prevent  the  water  running  direc5lly  around  the  roots  or 
stalks.  A  healthy,  well-developed  tassel  makes  a  good 
crop  of  corn,  hence  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  it 
from  becoming  stunted  or  killed  from  lack  of  water, 
also  to  keep  the  water  from  running  around  the  stalks. 


272  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Quick  growth  will  prevent  this  and  also  adl  as  a  guard 
against  the  invasion  of  worms  in  the  ears.  The  com- 
mon rule  is  not  to  irrigate  corn  until  the  leaves  appear 
wilted  in  the  morning.  Though  the  leaves  may  curl 
during  the  day,  as  long  as  they  come  out  bright  and 
fresh  in  the  morning  it  is  best  not  to  supply  more 
water.  Corn  roots  lie  near  the  surface,  so  deep  irriga- 
tion is  not  necessary.  The  water  should  be  run 
through  the  rows  quickly  and  turned  off.  As  soon  as 
in  a  condition  to  work,  the  surface  should  be  culti- 
vated to  prevent  rapid  evaporation. 

If  irrigated  too  early  the  corn  will  turn  yellow, 
g^ow  up  in  small,  sickly  stalks,  and  bear  poor  ears. 
Again,  if  watered  in  the  heat  of  summer  the  tassels 
may  die  and  no  com  can  form.  When  too  frequently 
irrigated  the  roots  will  not  spread  and  collecfl  nourish- 
ment from  the  soil.  Healthy  stalks  will  withstand 
drouth,  resist  worms,  and  produce  abundantly.  The 
only  way  to  raise  good  stalks  is  to  plant  the  best  seed 
on  well-plowed  and  thoroughly  pulverized  soil.  A  new 
and  very  good  method  is  to  plant  corn  along  the  sides 
of  previously  irrigated  furrows.  The  seed  should  be 
planted  as  soon  after  irrigation  as  the  soil  will  permit, 
and  ordinarily  need  not  be  watered  again  until  well 
up.  Keep  down  the  weeds  by  constant  cultivation. 
Many  growers  do  not  allow  the  headgates  of  the  ditches 
open  before  the  corn  comes  to  the  tassel.  There  are 
others,  however,  who  do  not  believe  that  such  precau- 
tion is  necessary.  They  hold  that  water  may  be  run 
down  the  furrows  whenever  it  seems  to  be  required. 
The  best  corn  growers  in  the  west  have  harvested 
ninety  bushels  an  acre  from  fields  irrigated  but  once  in 


IRRIGATION  OF  THE   GARDBN.^jCALI^ 

a  season.  If  a  farmer  or  gardener  expedls  big  crops  of 
corn  he  must  conform  to  the  nature  of  the  plant  and 
bear  in  mind  that  with  this  crop  cultivation  is  superior 
to  irrigation. 

Peanuts. — These  require  a  warm,  sandy  soil. 
They  are  planted  in  rows  two  and  one-half  feet  apart 
and  fourteen  inches  in  the  rows.  The  nuts  are  shelled 
and  planted  two  or  three  in  a  hill.  Cultivation  is 
about  the  same  as  for  potatoes.  The  Spanish  nuts 
grow  upright,  similar  to  potato  vines,  while  the  large 
Virginia  nuts  have  vines  running  upon  the  ground, 
similar  to  sweet  potatoes.  The  upright  vines  should 
be  hilled  slightly  with  a  small  garden  plow,  while  the 
others  require  flat  cultivation.  They  will  need  to  be 
irrigated  about  once  every  ten  days  and  kept  clean^of 
weeds  until  they  commence  to  bloom,  when  they  will 
need  to  be  kept  pretty  well  hilled  up;  and  if  the  vines 
grow  upward  too  much  to  take  root,  it  would  be  well 
to  put  a  shovelful  of  soil  in  the  center  of  each  vine, 
that  is,  on  top  of  the  center,  so  as  to  hold  it  down  to 
the  ground.  The  peanut  does  not  need  to  have  its 
blossoms  covered,  as  many  people  suppose.  The  crop 
can  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  until  the  first 
hard  frost  without  inj ury .  There  are  different  varieties, 
but  the  most  profitable  is  the  Virginia  nut.  They  are 
both  red  and  white,  and  the  latter  is  the  nut  to  grow 
for  profit.  The  Spanish  nut  is  very  prolific  and  the 
best  for  eating.  It  is  very  small  and  never  sold  on  the 
market  except  for  confedlioners'  use. 

Lettuce,  Spinach,  and  Parsley. — These  relishes 
are  subjedl  to  the  same  general  methods  of  cultivation 
and  irrigation.     The  writer  has  been  growing  them 


274  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

by  the  border  system.  The  beds  within  the  borders 
should  be  recflangular,  and  flooding  is  the  only  method 
of  irrigation  in  such  cases.  It  is  well  to  have  a  wet- 
ting given  preliminary  to  sowing  the  seed.  Irrigation 
is  not  needed  again  thereafter  unless  the  plants  show 
signs  of  wilting  from  drouth.  Then  on  a  dark  day  or 
late  in  the  afternoon  give  a  quick  flooding  of  an  inch 
or  so  and  run  the  water  off  as  quickly  as  possible,  as 
no  great  depth  of  moisture  is  required  by  such  crops, 
which  are  mostly  surface  feeders.  If  lettuce  is  to  be 
grown  for  seed  occasional  irrigations  may  be  applied 
throughout  the  summer. 

Rhubarb. — To  have  rhubarb  or  pie-plant  do  its 
best,  a  rich,  medium  heavy,  sandy  loam  is  required  not 
less  than  two  feet  deep.  It  must  be  heavily  fertilized 
previous  to  setting  the  roots  with  well-rotted  manure 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil.  If  one  desires 
to  set  a  large  patch,  it  is  perhaps  cheapest  and  best  to 
raise  the  plants,  but  where  only  50  or  100  roots  are 
wanted  they  can  be  bought.  Early  spring  is  the  best 
time  to  plant.  For  commercial  purposes  it  should  be 
planted  so  as  to  admit  of  horse  cultivation  each  way, 
but  when  wanted  for  private  use  or  where  ground  is 
limited  the  roots  can  be  set  as  close  as  two  feet  apart 
each  way  and  worked  by  hand  or  wheel  hoe.  In  set- 
ting, the  crown  of  the  plants  should  be  three  inches 
below  the  level  of  the  surface,  so  that  when  the  ground 
becomes  settled  after  irrigation,  which  should  follow 
immediately,  it  will  be  just  right. 

To  give  the  roots  a  good  start,  no  stalks  should  be 
picked  the  first  year,  and  only  a  few  of  the  strongest 
the  second,  and  none  after  the  first  of  August  in  any 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   GARDEN.  275 

year.  This  is  to  allow  the  roots  to  form  new  buds  for 
another  season's  crop.  Generally  the  plants  will  start 
in  spring  after  raking  off  the  mulch  without  irrigating, 
but  as  soon  as  the  ground  becomes  well  warmed  the 
water  should  be  applied  in  rills  for  three  or  four  hours 
and  continued  weekly  thereafter  throughout  the  cut- 
ting season,  with  a  good  terminating  wetting  shortly 
after  the  first  of  August  to  aid  in  the  formation  of 
buds.  When  the  ground  is  frozen  a  coat  of  coarse 
stable  manure  should  be  applied  to  prevent  frost  from 
penetrating  too  deeply,  thereby  securing  somewhat 
earlier  cutting  in  spring.  The  roots  should  be  divided 
every  three  or  four  years.  Rhubarb  pays  best  in  early 
spring,  and  accordingly  many  gardeners  are  forcing  it 
under  glass.  Some  dig  up  the  roots  in  fall  and  plant 
under  greenhouse  benches,  while  others  plant  roots  in 
hotbeds  or  cold  frames,  but  perhaps  the  best  method 
is  to  plant  roots  eighteen  inches  apart  each  way,  and 
in  strips  of  four  rows,  so  as  to  allow  of  a  six-foot 
frame  being  placed  over  them.  These  beds  must  be 
heavily  mulched  to  keep  from  freezing,  when  on  or 
about  the  middle  of  February  hotbed  sash  can  be 
placed  over  the  frame  and  the  bed  handled  as  a  cold 
frame. 

Roses. — A  rosebush  needs  water.  Watering  once 
a  month  will  never  produce  an  abundant  crop  of  rose 
petals.  The  bushes  seldom  get  more  water  than  is 
good  for  their  digestion.  A  garden  hose  thrust  near 
a  bush  and  the  water  allowed  to  flow  freely  for  an 
hour  or  two  every  day  will  furnish  enough  moisture 
for  the  roots.  Of  course,  when  the  delicate  young 
plant  is  first  set  out  this  generous  way  of  giving  the 


276  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

bush  a  foot-bath  must  not  be  attempted.  Young  plants 
require  some  protection  at  night  until  their  tissue 
stems  have  changed  to  woody  fiber.  On  occasional 
days  they  may  need  some  shelter  from  a  too  ardent 
sun.  The  soil  about  the  rosebush  needs  occasional 
loosening.  Virgin  soil  needs  but  little  fertilizing  aid, 
as  a  general  thing,  but  a  bucketful  of  barnyard  man- 
ure spread  over  the  ground  and  often  flooded  with 
water  never  harms  a 'growing  plant.  It  does  rose- 
bushes but  little  harm  to  cut  off  the  tops  of  the  more 
thrifty  growing  stems,  and  this  plan  generally  results 
in  a  better  crop  of  roses,  but  too  much  trimming  and 
pruning  is  bad.  We  would  not  advise  irrigation  of 
the  rose  or  any  other  bush,  tree  or  shrub  after  the 
middle  of  August,  or  the  first  of  September  at  the  very 
latest. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
IRRIGATION  FOR  THE  ORCHARD. 


S  IN  garden  irrigation,  it  is  advisable  lo  so  ar- 
range or  lay  out  the  trac5l  that  those  crops 
which  require  the  least  water  will  receive  the 
least,  and  vice  versa.  In  other  words,  do  not 
mix  everything  in  planting,  so  that  the  trees  will  have 
to  be  irrigated  every  time  the  small  fruits  are  watered. 
We  regard  this  an  important  precaution.  However 
commendable  impartiality  may  be  as  a  maxim  of  irri- 
gation, it  will  be  found  unsafe  when  applied  to  the 
details  of  water  distribution.  Plant  the  cherry  trees, 
for  example,  where  they  will  get  the  least  irrigation. 
Next  to  them  the  pears  and  apples,  although  the  latter 
will  need  considerable  water  the  first  season  after 
planting.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  a  well-established 
orchard  would  not  ordinarily  require  more  than  three 
good  irrigations  during  the  year.  Some  would  do 
with  less,  but  this  would  be  about  the  average. 

As  to  the  manner  of  running  water,  we  would  say 
that  our  experience  leads  us  to  prefer  a  head  of  water 
just  sufficient  to  send  a  moderate  stream  gradually 
along  the  rows.  This  enables  the  moisture  to  pene- 
trate the  soil  more  thoroughly  than  a  rapid  current 
would  do.  If  pradlicable,  water  should  be  run  on  both 
sides  of  the  row.  This  is  especially  desirable  in  the 
case  of  forest  or  other  trees  on  land  that  receives  little 
or  no  cultivation.     On  most  grounds  water  is  usually 

277^ 


278  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

run  along  several  rows  at  the  same  time.  Now  and 
then  soil  is  found  that  will  admit  of  rapid  irrigation, 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  vSending  the  water  along 
with  a  rush.  But  this  is  the  exception.  Of  course, 
where  water  is  scarce  and  one  is  limited  to  a  certain 
time  in  its  use,  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  use  it  as 
circumstances  will  permit.  When  the  water  has  run 
its  course  turn  it  off.  Do  not  let  it  soak  and  flood  the 
ground. 

In  orchard  irrigation  it  is  a  good  rule  never  to  apply 
water  so  long  as  the  subsurface  soil — say  at  a  depth  of 
six  or  eight  inches — will  ball  in  the  hand  ;  and  this  is 
a  test  that  should  often  be  resorted  to  during  the 
growing  season.  The  yield  may  be  largely  increased 
by  the  judicious  application  of  water.  That  the  fruit 
may  also  be  increased  in  size  and  made  more  attrad;ive 
is  equally  certain.  At  the  same  time  judgment  is  re- 
quired for  the  best  results.  Indeed,  positive  harm  may 
be  done  by  untimely  irrigation,  not  only  to  tree  and 
plant,  but  to  the  land  as  well.  Incessant  watering 
without  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  or  the  needs 
of  the  plant  will  often  force  a  growth  of  wood  at  the 
expense  of  the  fruit  producft  and  the  fruit  flavor.  It 
may  likewise  cause  a  growth  to  be  made  which  the 
succeeding  winter  finds  immature  and  unable  to  with- 
stand its  tests.  This  will  almost  certainly  be  the  result 
with  any  tree  or  plant  that  has  a  tendency  to  make  a 
strong  or  succulent  growth.  Whenever  late  frosts  are 
feared  turn  on  the  irrigation  water  in  the  orchard,  and 
unless  the  frost  is  very  heavy  no  damage  will  be  done 
to  the  fruit.  Irrigate  not  later  than  the  latter  part  of 
August  or  the  first  days  of  September,  so  as  to  give  the 


IRRIGATION   FOR   THE   ORCHARD.  279 

wood  a  chance  to  ripen.  When  water  can  be  had  irri- 
gate once  more  in  November  or  December,  for  the 
winters  in  irrigating  countries  are  generally  very  dry, 
but  never  use  more  water  than  is  needed  to  keep  the 
soil  moderately  moist  during  winter. 

It  has  been  observed  in  adlual  experience  that  water 
should  not  be  required  ordinarily  to  run  in  the  furrows 
more  than  sixty  rods,  although  eighty  rods  may  do 
under  certain  conditions  of  soil,  slope,  and  supply. 
Any  greater  length  of  flow  might  cause  the  first  or 
upper  part  of  the  furrow  to  become  cold,  a  condition  to 
be  avoided  by  all  means,  as  the  growth  of  any  tree, 
shrub  or  vine  is  naturally  checked  when  the  ground 
becomes  chilled,  a  condition  found  to  ensue  when  cold 
water  is  allowed  to  run  over  the  roots.  In  warm 
weather  the  water  will  evaporate  quickly.  We  have 
noticed  during  hot  days  in  irrigating  that  it  would  take 
water  in  a  good  even  furrow  about  sixteen  to  eighteen 
hours  to  cover  a  distance  of  sixty  to  eighty  rods,  and 
in  that  time  the  ground  at  the  head  of  the  row  would 
be  very  cold  and  growth  much  checked  before  the  last 
part  of  the  row  was  thoroughly  irrigated. 

The  length  of  time  that  water  should  be  allowed  to 
run  in  orchard  furrows  must  of  course  be  governed  by 
the  nature  of  the  soil  and  lay  of  the  land.  We  usually 
let  a  small  stream  run  twelve  hours.  Water  is  regu- 
lated by  small  boxes  made  of  lath,  which  are  cut  in 
pieces  two  feet  long,  nailed  so  as  to  make  a  funnel  one 
inch  square.  A  box  is  put  in  the  head  ditch  at  each 
furrow.  If  the  soil  is  very  dry  or  loose  two  boxes  may 
be  used  for  each  furrow.  It  is  necessary  to  put  the 
boxes  at  the  bottom  of  the  lateral  on  account  of  floating 


28o 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


trash  and  to  get  pressure.  As  the  trees  grow  older  and 
larger  the  soil  must  be  soaked  deeper,  and  when  loaded 
with  fruit  they  need  irrigation  at  least  every  two  weeks 
until  the  fruit  is  gathered.     Do  not  be  afraid  that  a 


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FIG.    65— DIAGRAM    OF   AN    ORCHARD. 

tree  loaded  with  fruit  will  not  ripen  in  the  fall.  So 
long  as  the  fruit  is  on  the  trees  do  not  stop  watering, 
but  soak  the  whole  surface  to  a  good  depth. 

Planting.  —A  good  idea  of  an  irrigated  orchard 
may  be  gleaned  from  the  diagram  of  Fig.  65.  At  a  is 
the  ditch,  b  are  the  checks  in  the  ditch,  and  ^the  head- 
gates  of  the  furrows. 


IRRIGATION   FOR   THE  ORCHARD.  28 1 

Plow  and  subsoil  repeatedly,  so  as  to  thoroughly 
pulverize  to  a  depth  of  twelve  to  eighteen  inches. 
When  planting  upon  lawns  or  grass-plots  remove  the 
sod  for  a  diameter  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  keep  this 
space  well  worked  and  free  from  weeds.  Dig  the  hole 
deeper  and  larger  than  is  necessary  to  admit  all  the 
roots  in  their  natural  position,  keeping  the  surface  and 
subsoil  separate.  Cut  off  the  broken  and  bruised  roots 
and  shorten  the  tops  to  half  a  dozen  good  buds,  except 
for  fall  planting,  when  it  is  better  to  defer  top-pruning 
until  the  following  spring.  If  not  prepared  to  plant 
when  the  stock  arrives,  heel  in  by  digging  a  trench 
deep  enough  to  admit  all  the  roots,  and  set  the  trees 
therein  as  thick  as  they  can  stand,  carefully  packing 
the  earth  about  the  roots  and  taking  up  when  required. 
Never  leave  the  roots  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  and 
puddle  before  planting.  Fill  up  the  hole  with  surface 
soil,  so  that  the  tree,  after  the  earth  is  settled,  will 
stand  about  as  it  did  when  in  the  nursery;  but  dwarf 
pears  should  be  planted  deep  enough  to  cover  the 
quince  stock,  upon  which  they  are  budded,  two  or  three 
inches.  Work  the  soil  thoroughly  among  the  roots, 
and  when  well  covered  tamp  firmly.  Set  the  trees  as 
firmly  as  a  post,  but  leave  the  surface  filling  light  and 
loose.  No  staking  will  be  required  except  with  very 
tall  trees.  Never  let  manure  come  in  contadl  with  the 
roots.     As  soon  as  planted  water  thoroughly. 

Apple  trees  can  be  planted  twenty-eight  or  thirty 
feet  each  way,  or  twenty-four  by  thirty-six  feet,  and  a 
pear,  cherry,  plum,  or  peach  planted  between  the  apple 
trees  in  the  thirty-six  foot  space.  Raspberries,  goose- 
berries, and  currants  can  be  planted  in  the  rows  be- 


282  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

tween  the  trees,  as  they  require  about  the  same  irriga- 
tion. Strawberries  can  be  planted  in  rows  four  feet 
apart  between  the  tree  rows.  Some  will  say  this 
makes  a  ragged  looking  orchard.  It  does  if  the  trees 
and  bushes  are  never  trimmed,  and  were  planted  with 
no  order  or  system.  In  transplanting  trees  it  is  well 
to  have  the  ditch  water  follow  in  a  furrow  close  to  the 
tree  row,  so  that  no  time  will  be  lost  in  moistening  the 
ground  and  starting  the  young  tree  on  its  new  life.  A 
newly  set  orchard  will  require  more  water  the  first  year 
than  any  succeeding  year,  and  the  writer  has  made  it 
a  point  to  irrigate  every  fortnight  the  first  year  until 
September,  when  all  water  is  shut  off. 

If  the  soil  is  well  prepared  the  work  of  setting 
trees  can  be  well  performed  and  with  very  little  trou- 
ble. Have  the  ground  moist  from  fall  or  winter  irri- 
gation, and  let  the  plow  go  as  deep  as  the  horses  can 
pull  it,  then  follow  with  a  subsoiler,  if  possible.  Meas- 
ure and  stake  off  in  both  direc5lions.  Run  a  light 
furrow  crosswise  of  the  field.  Then  with  the  turning 
plow  lay  off  in  the  dire(5lion  the  water  is  to  run,  going 
up  and  down  until  a  ditch  is  made  as  deep  and  wide  as 
the  plow  will  turn  the  earth.  When  this  is  done  very 
little  shoveling  will  be  required  to  make  ample  room 
for  the  roots  of  any  ordinary  tree.  By  setting  the  tree 
at  the  jundlion  of  these  cross-furrows  very  little  trouble 
will  be  experienced  in  making  the  rows  line  up  in  all 
diredlions. 

To  distribute  the  trees  place  them  in  a  wagon  with 
straw  packed  around  the  roots  and  wet;  then  drive 
through  the  orchard  and  take  out  one  tree  at  a  time  as 
fast  as  needed.     In  the  light,  fluffy,  or  chocolate  soils 


IRRIGATION   FOR   THE   ORCHARD.  283 

of  the  arid  west  trees  should  be  set  from  two  to  four 
inches  lower  than  they  stood  in  the  nursery.  While 
one  man  holds  the  tree  in  place  and  spreads  out  the 
roots,  another  shovels  in  the  fine  top-soil  until  the  roots 
are  covered.  This  is  firmed  with  the  foot  and  more 
earth  thrown  in  until  a  mound  is  formed  around  the 
tree.  When  two  or  three  trees  have  been  set  a  small 
stream  of  water  is  turned  in  through  a  lath  funnel  in 
the  head  ditch.  In  this  way  the  water  runs  slowly 
down  the  furrow,  finds  its  way  around  both  sides  of 
the  mound  and  soaks  thoroughly  the  earth  in  which 
the  roots  are  embedded.  In  a  few  days  the  ground  on 
each  side  will  be  dry  enough  to  work,  when  a  furrow 
should  be  thrown  inward  from  each  side,  filling  the 
large  furrow,  forming  a  mulch  which  will  hold  moisture 
a  long  time  and  leaving  a  small  furrow  on  each  side  for 
after  irrigation.  The  best  implement  for  this  is  a  six- 
inch  Diamond  plow  and  one  horse,  but  if  such  a  plow 
is  not  at  hand  the  ground  can  be  cultivated  until  level 
with  a  double  shovel  or  other  cultivator.  Then  fur- 
rows may  be  opened  on  each  side  just  before  the  next 
irrigation. 

Cultivation. — The  tendency  of  many  inexperienced 
orchardists  is  to  irrigate  too  frequently  and  too  much 
at  times  when  water  is  plentiful,  and  to  endeavor  to 
make  this  take  the  place  of  cultivation.  This  is  a 
pradlice  very  destructive  to  the  growth  of  all  kinds  of 
fruit  trees,  especially  in  heavy  soils.  The  tendency  of 
the  soil  after  each  irrigation  is  to  sun-bake,  and  thus 
prevent  a  free  circulation  of  air  through  it.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  cultivation  almost  immediately  after 
the  water  is  drawn  off  is  requisite  to  successful  orchard 


284  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

growth  under  irrigation.  Often  a  thorough  stirring  of 
the  soil  is  as  good,  if  not  better,  than  an  irrigation. 
Seasons  also  differ.  During  some  the  rainfall  is  suffi- 
cient to  carry  trees  well  into  the  summer  without  irri- 
gation. If  summer  and  winter  mulching  is  pradliced, 
less  water  is  required,  because  a  good  mulch  arrests 
evaporation  and  preserves  an  even  temperature  around 
the  tree.  In  fadl,  we  have  known  orchards  with  a 
good  mulch  and  thorough  cultivation  to  pass  through 
the  season  with  but  one  watering.  Occasionally  the 
soil  is  sufficiently  moist  to  permit  of  this  without  a 
mulch  if  the  cultivation  is  good.  But  these  instances 
are,  of  course,  the  exception,  and  will  not  do  for  a 
guide  in  any  general  sense. 

The  writer  cultivates  his  orchard  mostly  with  a 
double  shovel  five  times  a  year,  allowing  no  grass  or 
weeds  to  grow,  as  they  greatly  aid  in  harboring  mice. 
We  do  not  grow  corn  or  small  grain  in  the  orchard,  as 
these  crops  take  the  substance  of  the  soil  needed  for 
the  trees,  which  are  certainly  of  sufficient  importance 
to  have  the  benefit  of  the  entire  ground.  Melons 
can  be  grown  without  detriment.  Put  no  crop  in  the 
orchard  after  the  third  year.  Mulching  to  delay 
blooming  is  not  a  success.  The  California  plan  is  to 
plow  the  orchard  twice  annually,  the  first  time  as  early 
as  February,  and  again  in  April.  Plow  away  from 
the  trees  the  first  time  and  toward  the  trees  the  second 
time.  They  keep  up  the  cultivation  almost  constantly 
throughout  the  summer,  whether  irrigation  is  given  or 
not.  Some  men  use  a  chisel  tooth  cultivator,  while 
others  use  a  gang  plow.  The  duck-foot  cultivator  is 
a  very  common  implement  and  gives  good  satisf adlion , 


IRRIGATION   FOR  THK  ORCHARD.  285 

while  some  men  go  so  far  as  to  employ  the  one-horse 
weeder,  in  connection  with  other  tools.  Sandy  soils 
do  not  require  so  much  plowing  as  does  a  stiff  soil, 
and  for  the  latter  the  rolling  cutter  has  been  recom- 
mended. Old-fashioned  farmers  still  use  the  drag 
harrow. 

The  author  deprecates  the  use  of  whiffletrees  in  an 
orchard,  and  uses  the  patent  steel  harness,  that  is 
devoid  of  these  dangerous  things,  in  orchard  cultiva- 
tion. It  is  well  to  observe  the  flat  system  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  to  harrow  or  scarify  the  land  both  ways  after 
each  irrigation.  By  this  method  the  land  is  easily 
kept  free  from  weeds,  and  evaporation  by  capillary 
attraction  is  prevented.  New  irrigating  furrows  should 
be  marked  out  with  a  shovel  plow  or  a  ditcher  ju.st 
before  each  irrigation;  throw  the  earth  back  again  after 
irrigation  so  as  to  better  retain  the  moisture  that  has 
been  given.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  irrigation  can 
better  be  dispensed  with  than  can  cultivation. 

In  our  western  orchards  a  stratum  of  hard-pan  con- 
sisting of  a  bed  of  tenacious  clay  nearly  or  quite 
impervious  to  water  is  often  found  a  few  feet  below 
the  surface.  If  we  can  make  a  reservoir  of  this, 
putting  the  water  at  the  bottom  where  it  is  protected 
from  the  influence  of  the  hot  sun  and  dry  wind  we 
have  approximated  the  ideal  condition  of  subirrigation 
and  its  attendant  capillary  adlion.  If  we  can  get  the 
water  from  underneath  without  breaking  up  the  dust 
mulch  and  prevent  the  tremendous  evaporation  which 
takes  place  from  a  saturated  surface  until  cultivation 
arrests  it  by  restoring  the  dry-earth  mulch,  w^e  will 
accomplish  the  desired  result  of  putting  the  water  into 


286  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  land  instead  of  upon  the  land.  To  obtain  the  best 
results  from  irrigating  an  orchard  the  furrows  should 
be  very  deep  between  the  rows.  This  may  be  difficult 
to  do  in  a  very  dry  time.  One  plan  is  to  go  through 
with  an  ordinary  plow  and  make  a  furrow  in  which  to 
run  the  water.  Turn  in  a  small  stream  and  let  it  run 
until  the  ground  is  somewhat  soaked.  A  half  day's 
rain  is  very  beneficial  in  such  cases.  Then  take  a 
coulter  plow,  called  by  some  a  "  bull  tongue,"  attach 
two  horses  to  it  and  run  it  down  to  the  beam.  An 
ordinary  coulter  is  about  eighteen  inches  long  and  two 
horses  can  very  easily  pull  it  at  the  depth  given. 
Two  furrows  between  the  rows  of  trees  so  treated  will 
be  about  right,  but  in  some  soils  one  may  answer.  A 
big  stream  can  be  run  in  such  furrows  without  causing 
the  soil  to  wash.  The  second  plowing  can  be  done 
while  a  small  stream  is  running.  A  large  subsoil 
plow  drawn  by  a  heavier  team  would  serve  the  pur- 
pose so  much  the  better  instead  of  running  several 
streams  near  the  surface  in  each  row  space.  Such  a 
trench  as  this  will  accommodate  a  gdod  head  of  water, 
and  if  this  is  allowed  to  run  several  hours  the  roots  of  the 
trees  will  be  sufficiently  irrigated  to  last  several  weeks. 
This  plan  seems  to  be  gaining  favor  in  later  years. 

The  Plowsole. — There  is  also  found  in  nearly  all 
orchard  soils,  especially  in  irrigated  distridls,  an  arti- 
ficial, shallow  hard-pan  produced  by  the  repeated  adlion 
of  steel  tools  in  compacfling  and  smoothing  the  soil 
particles  when  in  moist  condition,  just  as  a  mason's 
trowel  smooths  and  firms  mortar  to  form  plaster. 
When  the  plowing  and  cultivation  is  of  uniform  depth, 
this  hard-pan  becomes  a  permanent  feature.     Varying 


IRRIGATION   FOR   THE   ORCHARD.  287 

deptfis  of  working  the  ground  are  better,  but  a  hard- 
ened layer  at  some  depth  generally  results.  It  may 
have  been  made  when  the  present  orchard  lands  were 
grain  fields  or  the  pasture  grounds  of  vast  herds  wallow- 
ing over  them  in  wet  seasons.  The  existence  of  the 
artificially  compressed  layer  or  of  a  natural  hard-pan 
just  beneath  the  tilled  surface  is  manifest  to  the  irri- 
gator by  lack  of  penetration  of  the  water.  After 
running  a  short  time  in  furrows  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  resistance  proves  too  great  for  the  water  to 
sink  to  a  depth  where  it  can  be  of  use  to  the  root  system, 
and  it  wets  the  surface  soil  from  furrow  to  furrow, 
where  the  need  of  moisture  is  least  and  evaporation  is 
greatest. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  summer  60  per  cent,  of 
irrigating  water  thus  applied  is  lost.  Some  practical 
and  economical  method  of  subirrigation  would  prevent 
this  loss.  A  California  man  has  invented  a  point  or 
hook  to  run  beneath  the  line  of  draft  at  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow.  This  attachment  is  fastened  to  the  point 
of  the  share  in  front  and  any  blacksmith  can  make  it. 
This  tool  will  cut  through  the  somewhat  impervious 
layer  of  soil  and  make  a  diredl  way  for  the  water  to 
enter  the  lower  stratum  to  be  saved  and  utilized. 
Dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  plow  may 
be  drawn  by  two,  three  or  four  horses.  In  ordinary 
ground  two  good  horses  will  draw  it  at  a  depth  of 
thirteen  inches,  where  loose  soil  is  usually  found 
beneath  the  layer  of  hard-pan.  Water  running  in  such 
furrows  immediately  over  the  channel  cut  through  the 
hard-pan  wets  below  first,  and  after  flowing  some  time 
moistens  the  surface  beyond  the  furrows. 


288  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

This  plow  was  used  within  five  and  a  half  feet  of 
the  trunks  of  ten-year-old  trees  on  two  sides  of  them, 
snapping  off  roots  up  to  an  inch  in  diameter.  Irriga- 
tion followed  in  these  furrows,  and  water  could  some- 
times be  found  by  digging  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrows 
eighteen  feet  ahead  of  the  point  where  it  disappeared. 
When  the  end  of  the  furrow  was  reached,  which  was 
somewhat  behind  the  time  of  the  ordinary  surface 
furrows  adjoining,  the  owner  thought  that  this  water 
was  well  placed,  but  was  doubtful  whether  the  good 
was  not  offset  by  the  damage  to  tree  and  crop  by 
the  root-cutting.  The  next  irrigation  was  in  another 
diredlion.  Two  surface  furrows  were  made  near 
the  rows  of  trees,  as  usual  on  each  side  of  them, 
and  one  in  the  middle  of  the  row  spaces  with  the 
subsoil  furrower,  eleven  feet  distant,  and  one  with 
the  same  implement  on  either  side  of  it,  about  eight 
feet  from  the  trees.  Few  roots,  and  mostly  small  ones, 
were  cut  in  this  operation.  For  six  months  this  treat- 
ment was  applied  and  results  were  satisfadlory .  There 
was  no  unusual  dropping  of  fruit,  even  in  that  part  of 
the  orchard  where  the  plow  ran  within  five  and  a  half 
feet  of  the  trees,  and  they  were  heavily  laden  with  fruit 
of  normal  size.  A  regular  subsoil  attachment  following 
right  behind  the  plowshare  could  be  used  instead  of 
the  hook  in  front,  or  a  common  subsoil  plow  might  be 
employed  to  follow  in  the  furrow  and  cut  through  the 
hard-pan. 

Apples. — ^This  king  of  fruits  may  be  irrigated  in 
many  ways,  and  a  liberal  quantity  of  water  is  advisable. 
We  have  noticed  one  thing  about  growing  apples  under 
irrigation.     By  giving  them  plenty  of  water  when  they 


IRRIGATION   FOR   THK   ORCHARD.  289 

are  attaining  full  size,  or  are  nearly  full  grown,  they 
receive  more  sap  and  attain  fully  one-eighth  more 
weight  or  specific  gravity,  compared  with  similar  fruit 
of  the  same  size.  The  color  of  the  apple  is  also  greatly 
improved  in  this  way,  and  it  puts  on  a  polish  that 
could  not  be  attained  without  irrigation.  The  charac- 
teristic of  polishing  nicely  is  noticed  principally  in  the 
Ben  Davis  and  Jonathan  varieties.  If  the  early  spring 
season  has  been  dry  the  orchard  should  be  irrigated 
just  as  soon  as  the  canals  are  carrying  water.  If  no 
other  circumstances  arise  it  may  be  deemed  advisable 
to  irrigate  again  every  month  until  the  last  of  August, 
when  water  should  be  discontinued  from  all  fruits. 
Young  trees  will  take  more  water  than  older  ones,  and 
a  wetting  at  the  time  the  fruit  buds  are  appearing  is 
quite  essential.  Give  no  water  at  the  time  of  blossom- 
ing. After  the  fruit  is  half  grown  it  can  be  forced  to 
greater  size  by  copious  irrigations.  The  apple  attains 
one-tenth  of  its  final  size  during  the  last  month  of 
maturity.  Russian  varieties  have  thick,  leathery 
foliage  which  cannot  readily  tran.spire,  and  for  this 
reason  but  very  little  water  should  be  given  at  any 
time. 

Of  course  it  must  be  understood  that  the  manage- 
ment of  an  orchard  in  the  fall  nnist  depend  largely  on 
the  dryness  of  the  season,  the  age  and  fruitage  of  the 
trees,  as  well  as  their  variety  and  general  condition. 
While  young  trees  not  yet  in  bearing,  or  those  not 
carrying  a  load  of  fruit,  may  need  no  water  after  the 
15th  of  August,  it  maybe  quite  essential  to  give  water- 
ings to  trees  heavy  in  fruition  to  more  thoroughly 
develop  the  fruit  itself  and  aid  in  the  picking.     It  has 


290  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

often  been  observed  at  harvest  time  that  the  apples  do 
not  come  off  easily  and  do  not  feel  right  in  the  hand. 
Under  these  circumstances  to  postpone  the  picking 
and  irrigate  the  orchard  may  require  four  or  five  days' 
time.  In  twelve  hours  there  will  be  a  noticeable 
difference;  in  thirty-six  hours  the  apples  will  gain  in 
color,  plumpness,  and  size.  When  picking  is  resumed 
the  apples  will  come  off  nicely  and  be  larger  and  more 
highly  colored.  The  gain  may  be  at  least  ten  per  cent. 
This  last  irrigation  affedls  cherries,  plums,  and  grapes 
as  much  or  more  than  apples,  and  we  always  irrigate 
heavily  while  they  are  ripening.  The  keeping  quali- 
ties are  also  better. 

Pear. — This  valuable  fruit  will  succeed  in  most 
kinds  of  soil,  but  flourishes  best  in  rich  loamy,  or 
heavy  red  clayish,  or  sandy  soils.  The  latter  is 
especially  adapted  to  it  if  it  carries  the  oxide  of  iron, 
an  element  quite  common  in  many  of  the  mountain 
districts  of  the  far  west.  The  best  kinds  to  plant  for 
permanent  orchard  are  the  standard  sorts  budded  on 
pear  stock,  which,  if  well  cared  for,  should  stand  for 
two  hundred  years.  The  planting  should  be  sixteen 
or  twenty  feet  apart.  Dwarf  pears  are  best  budded 
on  the  quince,  although  this  pradlice  forces  their 
blooming  period  and  places  them  in  more  imminent 
danger  of  spring  frosts.  Generally  speaking,  the 
same  amount  of  water  is  required  as  for  the  apple 
and  plum,  and  the  same  general  rules,  particularly 
as  to  cultivation,  should  be  followed.  The  fruit  should 
never  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  ripe  on  the 
trees. 

Quince. — The    quince   is  a  valuable    fruit    that 


IRRIGATION    FOR    THE   ORCHARD.  29 1 

should  find  a  place  in  every  orchard.  In  many  respedls 
it  is  superior  to  pears  for  home  use  and  is  very  good 
for  marketing.  There  are  but  a  few  varieties  from 
which  to  seledl.  The  Orange  is  probably  the  best  to 
plant.  The  Portugal  is  a  fancy  variety  because  of  its 
crimson  appearance  when  cooked.  Two  choice  varie- 
ties, known  as  the  Van  Deman  and  Santa  Rosa,  have 
recently  been  introduced.  A  deep,  rich  soil,  free  from 
too  much  moisture  is  the  most  suitable  for  the  quince. 
It  does  not  require  much  irrigation.  If  over-irrigated 
the  trees  will  become  sickly,  and  the  leaves  will  take 
on  a  yellow,  deadly  color.  The  trees  should  be  pruned 
so  as  to  insure  good  crops  and  fine  specimens.  The 
irrigation  furrows  should  be  opened  so  as  to  give  a 
downward  tendency  to  the  roots.  The  closest  cultiva- 
tion is  to  be  given  and  the  greater  quantity  of  water 
for  a  season  should  be  applied  after  the  fruit  is  half 
grown.  The  quince  may  be  planted  in  the  apple 
orchard  and  irrigated  in  the  same  way.  A  pound  or 
two  of  common  salt  should  be  scattered  around  each 
tree  in  the  spring. 

Plum. — This  crop  is  best  grown  on  heavy  loam 
soil  or  heavy  clayish  sandy  soil,  but  will  generally  get 
along  on  any  kind  of  soil.  Close  planting  of  different 
varieties  together  is  advisable  on  account  of  the  neces- 
sity of  complete  poUenization.  Native  American  kinds 
make  the  best  .stock  to  bud  upon.  The  plum  may 
well  succeed  the  apple  for  position  in  an  orchard,  as  it 
requires  as  much  water,  applied  in  virtually  the  same 
way.  The  wild  sorts  may  often  be  found  growing 
^long  perennial  streams,  with  roots  constantly  in  the 
moisture,  and  these  trees  are  always  reliable  for  bear- 


292  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

ing  year  after  year.  An  even  tenure  of  moisture 
throughout  the  growing  season  would  seem  to  be  a 
normal  condition  for  success  with  plums. 

Prunes  are  becoming  a  great  crop  in  many  of  the 
irrigated  portions  of  Western  America,  and  these  lo- 
calities will  some  day  produce  a  sufficiency  of  dried 
fruit  to  drive  the  foreign  article  almost  entirely  out  of 
the  market.  The  best  California  experience  is  to 
begin  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  a  prune  orchard 
some  time  previous  to  planting.  It  is  desirable  to 
thoroughly  and  deeply  plow  in  the  fall,  exposing  the 
surface  to  the  air  during  the  winter.  Wherever  there 
is  hard-pan  it  should  be  well  broken  up.  In  many  in- 
stances the  soil  is  fertilized,  and  in  all  cases  it  is  well 
stirred  and  evenly  harrowed.  The  proper  preparation 
of  the  soil  is  a  matter  of  much  care  and  study.  The 
square  system  is  generally  preferred  in  planting,  the 
objedl  being  to  economize  the  ground  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, at  the  same  time  giving  proper  consideration  to 
the  facility  of  future  care  and  having  an  eye  to  the 
appearance  of  the  orchard.  In  the  square  system  the 
land  is  laid  off  in  lines  crossing  each  other,  trees  being 
planted  at  each  crossing.  They  are  placed  twenty 
feet  apart,  so  that  io8  trees  are  included  in  an  acre. 
By  the  quincunx  system,  which  is  similar  to  the 
square  except  that  the  rows  are  doubled  and  a  tree 
planted  in  the  center  of  each  square,  199  trees  to  the 
acre  are  provided  for,  but  this  is  generally  with  a  view- 
to  the  future  removal  of  the  center  trees.  By  the 
hexagonal  system  six  trees  form  a  hexagon  and 
enclose  a  seventh,  126  being  planted  to  each  acre. 
The  triangular  system  is  similar  to  the  square  except 


IRRIGATION    FOR   THE   ORCHARD.  293 

that  a  line  is  run  diagonally  across  and  a  tree  planted 
alternately,  forming  a  triangle. 

The  prune  needs  all  the  strength  of  the  soil. 
There  is  none  to  be  spared  for  weeds.  It  needs  the 
moisture  and  the  vitalizing  forces  of  the  air  about  its 
roots.  Thorough  cultivation  and  pulverization  secures 
this.  The  ground  is  deeply  plowed  in  the  spring, 
except  near  the  tree  rows,  where  the  work  must  be 
more  shallow.  Harrowing  follows  plowing,  and  then 
a  cultivator  or  weed  cutter  is  run  through  the  orchard 
three  or  four  times  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The 
objedt  is  to  leave  a  perfe(5lly  level  and  soft  surface. 
The  prune  bears  heavily  and  thus  requires  an  ample 
supply  of  moisture.  Prunes  will  make  from  forty  to 
sixty,  instead  of  one  hundred  and  twenty,  to  the 
pound  when  liberally  supplied  with  water.  The  best 
results  from  applying  water  are  those  obtained  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  fruit's  development. 

The  Peach  is  the  popular  crop  with  those  who 
are  situated  so  fortunately  as  to  grow  it.  A  high, 
sandy,  well-underdrained  soil  is  best  for  the  peach, 
and  much  *  *  puttering  around  ' '  in  the  soil  preparation 
can  be  commended.  I^eave  nothing  undone  in  pre- 
paring the  planting  ground.  The  trees  should  stand 
fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  apart  and  should  never  be  older 
than  one  year  from  the  bud.  All  branches  should  be 
removed  at  time  of  planting,  allowing  nothing  to  stand 
but  the  straight  trunk,  which  should  be  cut  back  to 
three  feet.  A  northern  exposure,  or  locations  exposed 
to  cool  breezes  night  and  day  in  early  spring,  and 
where  the  frost  remains  in  the  ground  late  in  the 
spring,    are  natural    advantages.       The  soil    should 


294  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

always  be  cultivated  and  nothing  but  hoed  crops 
should  be  grown  in  the  orchard.  After  the  trees  come 
into  bearing  nothing  should  be  grown,  as  they  will 
need  all  the  substance. 

Cultivation  should  begin  with  the  opening  of 
spring,  and  be  kept  up  until  the  fruit  is  plucked.  The 
shortening  in  of  all  new  growth,  and  cutting  away  of 
all  dead  and  injured  wood,  must  be  carefully  attended 
to.  During  the  first  year  the  irrigation  should  be 
given  in  furrows  along  each  side  of  the  row,  and  some 
growers  even  go  so  far  as  to  make  borders  around  the 
trees,  with  earth  piled  against  the  trunks  vso  as  to  pre- 
vent contadl  from  water.  The  water  is  turned  on  only 
as  often  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  demands.  Great 
injury  is  often  resultant  from  indiscriminate  use  of 
water  in  peach  culture.  In  irrigated  countries  the 
majority  of  orchardists  will  turn  on  the  water  when 
the  top-soil  looks  dry,  whereas  if  they  would  but  ex- 
amine the  earth  at  the  roots  they  would  find  it  damp 
enough.  During  the  second  year  it  is  the  custom  of 
some  growers  to  make  one  border  between  the  rows, 
and  irrigate  the  entire  intermediary  space  in  this  way. 
This  is  done  by  one  of  the  best  peach  growers  in  the 
west.  After  a  good  soaking  a  thorough  harrowing 
and  leveling  down  is  given.  The  furrow  would  answer 
just  as  well  and  would  require  less  water.  Mature 
trees  should  be  well  watered  from  the  time  the  fruit  is 
set  until  September  ist,  after  which  the  irrigations  are 
withheld  until  December,  when  the  trees  are  again 
watered  to  go  into  winter  quarters.  On  no  account 
should  water  be  applied  at  or  near  the  blooming  period, 
as  the  tendency  would  be  to  blast  the  prospec5ls  of  a 


IRRIGATION  FOR   THE  ORCHARD.  295 

good  yield.  With  too  much  water,  that  is,  when  the 
irrigations  are  too  frequent,  the  leaves  of  the  trees  will 
often  turn  yellow,  owing  to  the  depletion  of  chlorophyl 
caused  by  overirrigation.  Modern  growers  of  peach 
trees  north  of  the  38th  parallel  have  adopted  the  plan 
of  laying  down  their  trees  in  winter  and  covering  them 
with  earth,  root,  stem  and  branch,  keeping  them 
buried  until  blossoming  time  in  the  spring.  Wetting 
the  roots  at  burying  time  assists  in  bending  the  tree 
down. 

Unlike  the  apple,  the  peach  should  not  be  irrigated 
at  time  of  plucking,  unless  the  trees  are  ac5lually  suffer- 
ing for  moisture,  and  this  precaution  applies  particu- 
larly to  fruit  intended  for  shipment.  One  grower  of 
our  acquaintance  having  a  very  fine  orchard  of  Muirs 
which  he  was  drying  thought  he  would  check  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit  by  thorough  irrigation.  At  the 
time  the  water  was  applied  the  peaches  were  of  very 
fine  quality  and  withstood  handling  well.  Within 
thirty-six  hours  after  the  irrigation  was  completed, 
however,  there  was  the  greatest  change  imaginable  in 
this  fruit.  A  very  slight  touch  would  rub  off  the  skin, 
the  wound  would  immediately  turn  black  and  rapid 
decay  set  in.  The  previous  fine  and  delicate  flavor  was 
gone  and  the  fruit  when  dried  shriveled  to  almost 
nothing.  The  frequency  of  the  application  will  depend 
almost  wholly  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and  whether 
the  trees  are  bearing  a  crop  of  fruit  or  not.  Suppose  a 
tree  which  is  three  years  old  well  supplied  with  foliage, 
and  consider  the  amount  of  evaporating  surface  the 
foliage  possesses.  Is  it  not  apparent  that  it  will  make 
an  enormous  drain  on  the  soil  in  a  dry  atmosphere  ? 


296  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Now  suppose  this  tree  four  years  old  and  developing  a 
crop  of  fruit.  It  will  of  necessity  require  more  than 
three  times  as  much  moisture  for  the  perfedl  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit  and  wood  combined  as  it  did  for  the 
wood  growth  alone. 

Apricots  should  be  planted,  pruned,  cultivated, 
and  irrigated  the  same  as  the  peach.  Alkali  soil  is  not 
a  detriment  to  the  apricot  if  not  too  strong  and  often 
gets  the  blame  that  belongs  to  irrigation.  Young  apri- 
cot trees,  after  bearing  their  first  crop,  should  be 
pruned  at  once,  and  the  lateral  branches  only  should  be 
shortened  in.  If  irrigation  is  employed,  then  water 
and  cultivation  must  be  applied  immediately  in  order 
to  start  the  tree  growing,  so  that  it  may  develop  fruit 
buds  for  the  next  year's  crop.  If  the  tree  has  borne 
very  heavily  and  the  wood  growth  has  been  light,  bet- 
ter not  prune  at  all,  but  do  not  negle(5l  cultivation  after 
the  crop  is  gathered.  As  this  tree  gets  older  it  needs 
scarcely  any  pruning. 

The  Cherry. — This  fine  pit  fruit  is  most  often 
planted  on  very  light  soils,  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet 
apart,  and  is  at  home  on  ridge  land.  Trees  may  be 
planted  in  apple  orchards,  but  the  irrigation  system 
should  be  distind;  from  that  of  the  apple  trees. 
Mulching  is  not  recommended,  as  it  induces  the  roots 
to  take  on  an  upward  tendency,  which  is  to  be  dis- 
countenanced in  all  irrigated  fruits.  Cherry  trees  drop 
blossoms  and  fruit  sometimes  because  of  a  deficiency  of 
lime  in  the  soil ;  sometimes  drouth  may  cause  them  to 
drop,  and  if  the  trees  have  been  growing  strongly  by 
too  much  irrigation,  unripe  wood  may  have  had  some- 
thing to  do  with  it.     In  the  latter  case  lime  worked 


IRRIGATION   FOR   THE   ORCHARD.  297 

into  the  soil  would  have  an  influence  for  the  better. 
Much  good  may  be  done  in  a  dry  season  by  irrigating 
the  trees  every  ten  days  after  the  blossoming  period 
and  up  to  the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  Once  thereafter  is 
usually  all  the  water  they  will  need  in  the  season. 
Irrigations  should  generally  be  of  quick  duration,  so 
that  the  land  shall  not  become  soaked  or  water  logged. 
Great  caution  is  advised  in  applying  water  to  cherry 
trees  of  Russian  origin,  and  they  actually  require  but 
slight  moisture  to  grow  and  fruit  at  their  best.  This 
from  the  fa(5l  that  they  come  from  the  high  and  dry 
steppes  of  Russia  and  naturally  need  but  little  water. 

The  Orange. — The  orange  tree  requires  an  abun- 
dance of  moisture,  and  its  need  of  more  water  is  indi- 
cated by  the  curling  of  its  leaves  ;  but  exceSvSive  irri- 
gation gives  rise  to  diseased  conditions,  manifested  by 
gum,  yellowing  of  the  leaves,  and  other  troubles.  The 
system  of  irrigation  mostly  pradliced  consists  in  run- 
ning the  water  in  finely  divided  streams  through  fur- 
rows three  feet  apart  between  the  rows  of  trees  from  a 
head  ditch,  using  about  twenty  inches  at  a  time  for 
ten  acres,  and  continuing  the  irrigation  until  the 
ground  is  wet  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  feet.  The 
irrigation  should  always  be  followed  by  cultivation  as 
soon  as  the  conditions  of  the  soil  will  permit,  and  cul- 
tivation be  continued  at  intervals  for  six  or  eight 
weeks  before  another  irrigation  is  given. 

The  first  year  of  planting  very  little  irrigation  is 
required.  In  some  orchards,  after  the  trees  are  set  out 
a  furrow  is  run  alongside  the  row  with  a  plow,  then 
water  is  run  down,  and  a  basin  made  around  each 
tree.     This  basin  is  allowed  to  fill,  then  it  is  dammed 


298  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Up  and  the  water  run  to  the  next.  When  the  water 
has  disappeared  the  ground  is  leveled  to  prevent  the 
too  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture.  This  system  is  con- 
tinued until 'the  tree  becomes  at  least  four  years  old. 
After  that  the  orchard  is  checked  off  into  squares, 
which  are  filled  up.  In  the  same  way  a  furrow  is  run 
down  the  rows  on  either  side,  and  the  water  running 
in  this  furrow  will  soak  through.  But  this  practice  is 
not  so  good  as  the  one  that  allows  the  water  to  soak 
in  the  squares,  as  when  the  water  runs  down  it  will 
carry  with  it  the  necessary  fertilizing  elements  from 
the  trees  nearest  the  ditch.  Trees  are  irrigated  during 
the  season  as  late  as  October,  or  even  later,  without 
any  injury.  Four  or  five  wettings  of  an  orange  grove 
in  a  season  are  usually  sufficient. 

There  are  seasons  when  oranges  drop  badly,  and 
some  growers  ascribe  it  entirely  to  hot  winds.  It 
is  doubtless  true  that  extremely  hot  weather  finds  the 
trees  partially  dormant,  and  the  damage  is  wrought  on 
the  young,  tender  oranges  before  sap  starts  to  flowing 
freely.  The  most  universal  remedy  recommended  is 
water,  and  in  so  far  as  it  is  used  to  put  the  tree  in  good 
condition,  is  doubtless  efFedlive,  although  fertilization 
of  the  soil  may  be  the  thing  most  needed.  The  water 
should  be  applied  two  or  three  weeks  prior  to  the  hot 
or  cold  weather,  or,  in  other  words,  the  trees  should  at 
all  times  be  kept  in  strong  growing  condition.  To 
accomplish  this,  water  in  abundance  down  deep  in  the 
ground  is  necessary.  Superficial  surface  irrigating  is 
of  but  little  avail.  Those  irrigators  who  apply  water 
in  small  quantities  every  week  or  two,  merely  running 
the  rill  in  the  furrow  till  it  reaches  the  lower  end,  are 


300  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

the  ones  who  scarcely  ever  have  a  crop,  whether  the 
weather  is  hot  or  cold,  or  of  the  best  condition.  The 
most  successful  growers  plan  to  irrigate  every  six 
weeks,  running  the  water  eight  or  ten  hours  in  each 
furrow.  On  heavy  soil  this  would  not  be  sufficient, 
])ut  on  sandy  loam  will  probably  answer.  Following 
the  irrigation,  cultivate  deeply  and  thoroughly.  It  is 
quite  satisfa<5lorily  demonstrated  in  California  that 
puffy  oranges  are  due  to  uneven  or  insufficient  irriga- 
tion. 

Lemons  and  Limes. — The  highest  and  driest 
part  of  the  orchard  is  the  most  appropriate  place  upon 
which  to  plant  the  lemon  or  the  lime  tree.  It  requires 
a  point  almost  free  from  frost,  and  if  planted  in  any 
other  place  will  probably  be  a  failure.  After  seledling 
the  proper  location  the  soil  should  be  well  broken,  so 
that  the  roots  can  utilize  the  elements  of  the  subsoil. 
The  trees  should  be  planted  about  twenty-five  feet 
apart  and  to  a  depth  of  two  and  a  half  feet,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  tree.  Before  planting  be  sure  to  cut 
all  particles  of  damaged  roots  away.  Water  should  be 
run  around  the  tree  a  vshort  time  to  settle  the  soil  be- 
fore the  last  few  shovelfuls  of  earth  are  put  in.  The 
time  to  plant  varies  according  to  the  place,  but  March 
and  April  are  the  months  generally  conceded  by  grow- 
ers in  the  citrus  distri(5ls  to  be  the  best  months.  The 
general  ground  plan  of  the  lemon  grove  should  be  the 
same  as  that  described  for  the  orange,  and  application 
of  water  is  made  in  much  the  same  way. 

Nuts. — There  is  probably  as  much  variation  in  the 
irrigation  of  nut-bearing  trees  as  in  a  regular  orchard 
plantation.     In  giving  instrudlions  for  the  irrigation 


IRRIGATION    FOR   THE   ORCHARD.  30I 

of  such  trees  we  have  no  great  amount  of  material  or 
precedence  upon  which  to  work,  but  must  depend  on 
judgment  gained  by  the  natural  habits  of  the  trees 
themselves.  The  chestnut,  for  instance,  growing  natu- 
rally on  the  highest  and  driest  ridges  of  the  Appalach- 
ian range,  will  not  require  such  damp  situations  and 
moist  feet  as  the  American  butternut,  the  habitat  of 
which  is  along  the  sides  of  streams  in  the  mountains. 
The  most  valuable  nut  tree  in  America  to-day  is  no 
doubt  the  black  walnut.  It  must  have  deep,  rich  soil, 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  to  standing  water,  in  a  suitable 
location  and  with  abundance  of  water  for  irrigation. 
The  English  walnut  does  not  endure  too  hot  or  too 
cold  weather.  The  trees  must  not  be  nearer  than  fifty 
feet  each  way  and  no  crops  must  be  raised  on  the  land 
while  the  trees  are  growing.  When  they  are  grown 
they  will  need  all  that  the  richest  soil  can  supply.  In 
full  bearing  there  should  be  200  pounds  of  nuts  to  the 
tree,  and  they  must  be  irrigated  when  filling  or  they 
will  not  yield  well.  The  almond  is  as  delicate  as  the 
peach,  and  requires  quite  as  skilful  irrigation.  Care 
should  be  used  to  keep  the  water  from  tlie  trunks  of 
the  trees.  To  guard  against  this  it  is  advisable  to 
ridge  the  soil  around  the  young  trees  the  first  year, 
running  the  water  a  foot  or  so  distant,  the  second  year 
nearly  the  same,  and  the  third  year  at  least  two  feet 
from  the  trunk.  Irrigation  should  not  be  too  copious 
and  water  must  not  be  allowed  to  pond  near  the  trees. 
More  trees  are  lost  from  this  negligence  than  from  all 
other  causes,  especially  in  the  case  of  clay  soils. 
Pecan  culture  is  becoming  quite  an  industry  in  Texas 
and  other  portions  of  the  southwest.     The  trees  do 


302  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

best  when  planted  on  alluvial  bottoms,  and  they  will 
require  much  the  same  treatment  as  the  almond,  the 
only  difference  being  in  their  ability  to  take  more 
water.  The  filbert  will  not  suffer  especially  from  lib- 
eral irrigation,  and  the  hickory  and  beechnut  can  be 
supplied  with  more  water  than  is  necessary  for  most 
trees. 


CHAPTER   XV. 
THE  VINEYARD  AND  SMALL  FRUITS. 


f^    RAPES  are  among  the  most  variable  of   fruits 
^7,      even  in  their  wild  state,  in  which  climate, 
^^    soil,   shade,  humidity,  and   perhaps  natural 
hybridization  have  originated  such  a  multi- 
plicity of  forms  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  original  types  and  to  refer  the  different  forms  to 
their  proper  alliances.     There  are  many  varieties  that 
thrive  well  on  heavy  black  loamy  sandy  soils,  some  do 
splendidly  on  the  adobe  or  clayey  soils,  and  many  do 
all  that  is  possible  on  red  clayish  sandy  soils.     The 
former  and  the  latter  are  adapted  to  the  successful 
cultivation  of  more  varieties  than  is  the  adobe.' 

The  Best  Soils. — The  soil  best  suited  to  the 
grape,  however,  is  a  loose,  porous  one,  not  very  wet 
and  not  underlaid  with  water.  Whether  the  soil  is 
sand  or  clay  is  not  so  important  as  its  porosity  and 
ability  to  quickly  lose  its  excess  of  moisture  after  an 
irrigation  or  a  drenching  rain.  Grape-vines  should 
not  be  planted  closer  than  eight  feet,  and  after  the 
first  year  no  crop  should  be  grown  between  the  rows. 
If  the  vineyard  is  large,  roadways  should  be  left  to 
haul  into  it  manure  and  to  haul  out  of  it  the  grapes. 
The  lack  of  success  in  cultivating  the  grape  on  adobe 
soil  is  caused  by  excessive  irrigation — too  much  water 
on  the  surface  keeping  the  soil  cold,  and  invariably 

303 


304  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

turning  the  leaves  yellow.  When  there  is  a  porous 
subsoil  grapes  do  better  on  an  adobe  soil.  A  soil  that 
contains  much  alkali  is  not  good  for  grapes.  What 
would  be  called  a  sandy  soil  with  a  porous  subsoil  has 
so  far  proved  to  be  the  best,  and  the  soil  should  be 
rich  enough  to  raise  a  good  crop  of  corn.  Constant 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  keeps 
it  cold.  A  warm  soil  is  what  makes  a  good  grape. 
Grapes  can  be  raised  with  but  little  water,  but  the 
fruit  will  be  small  and  the  bunches  imperfe(5l. 

Planting. — Nearly  all  the  vines  sold  by  nursery- 
men are  from  cuttings.  Some  growers  use  but  a  single 
bud,  which  requires  but  a  short  piece  of  the  vine.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  soil  in  good  condition — 
well  pulverized,  and  containing  sufficient  moisture. 
The  cutting  should  be  placed  near  the  surface  with  the 
bud  turned  up.  In  order  to  retain  the  moisture  in  the 
soil  it  is  desirable  to  use  mulching,  for  without  moisture 
there  can  be  no  rooting.  The  use  of  a  single  bud  is 
better  adapted  to  the  nursery  than  to  field  growth.  In 
the  use  of  long  cuttings  some  use  only  the  growth  of 
the  last  season,  and  some  use  a  single  piece  of  the  vine 
having  a  portion  of  the  older  growth  as  well  as  the 
new.  But  the  first  named  is  the  more  usual  pra(5lice. 
The  length  of  cuttings  is  usually  eighteen  to  twenty 
inches.  Cuttings  can  be  taken  from  the  vines  any 
time  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  and  before  the  spring 
flow  of  the  sap  begins,  but  before  January  ist  is  better 
than  after.  Keep  them  dormant  until  the  time  comes 
to  set  them  out  in  the  vineyard,  by  placing  them  in  a 
shallow  trench,  top  down,  on  the  north  side  of  a 
building.     Cover  the  butts  with  loose  earth  and  place 


THK   VINEYARD   AND   SMALI^   FRUITS.  305 

over  that  some  straw  and  boards.  Take  care  that  the 
trench  is  in  moist  but  not  wet  earth,  as  too  much 
moisture  causes  the  cuttings  to  decay.  There  is  as 
much  need  of  deep  and  fine  working  of  the  soil,  press- 
ing it  around  the  cuttings,  and  for  careful  culture  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  as  there  is  for  the  treatment 
of  fruit-tree  seedlings  or  root  grafts.  In  planting  a 
vineyard  the  vines  are  placed  eight  feet  apart  each  way, 
except  in  the  case  of  raisin  grapes,  when  space  must  be 
provided  to  spread  trays  on  which  the  grapes  are  to  be 
dried.  Such  plantations  are  made  with  the  vines 
7  X  10,  or  8  X  10,  or  even  4)^  x  1 1  feet.  There  is  a  great 
variation  in  the  distances.  When  planting  the  vines 
all  dead  roots  should  be  cut  off  and  the  top  cut  back  to 
two  buds  or  eyes.  The  holes  for  planting  should  be 
large  enough  to  allow  the  roots  to  be  spread  out  in  a 
natural  position  and  the  earth  should  be  packed  care- 
fully around  all  the  roots.  If  the  soil  is  not  moist 
when  the  vines  are  planted,  they  should  be  irrigated 
at  once,  or,  what  is  better  still,  the  ground  should  be 
well  soaked  by  flooding  or  otherwise  before  the  plant- 
ing is  done. 

Cultivation. — Grape-vines  the  first  year  after 
planting  should  be  cultivated  the  same  as  corn,  using 
first  a  two-horse  corn  cultivator  straddling  the  rows 
and  afterwards  passing  between  them,  working  the 
land  four  times  during  the  season,  and  also  using  a 
hoe  near  the  vines.  It  pays  a  large  per  cent,  on  the 
investment  to  keep  the  ground  mellow  and  clean. 
When  the  ground  is  kept  mellow  a  harrow  is  a  good 
tool  with  which  to  kill  small  weeds,  using  it  between 
the  periods  of  cultivation.     Do  not  attempt  to  practice 


306  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

economy  by  planting  some  other  crop  among  the  grape- 
vines. What  is  planted  may  do  well,  but  the  vines 
must  suffer.  Grapes  the  second  year  after  planting 
need  the  very  best  care  and  cultivation  that  can  be 
given  them,  for  this  is  the  year  the  canes  grow  that 
bear  the  first  crop  of  fruit.  During  the  growing  season 
of  that  year  great  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve 
from  two  to  four  canes  for  bearing  fruit  the  next  year, 
by  tying  them  up  to  stakes  or  training  them  on  wires. 

In  trellising  posts  may  be  set  either  in  winter  or 
spring,  and  one  wire  stretched  eighteen  inches  from 
the  ground,  on  which  to  fasten  shoots  during  their 
growth — one  extended  each  way.  By  fall  these  arms 
will  be  from  six  to  ten  feet  long  and  should  be  cut  back 
to  within  three  or  four  feet  of  the  ground.  The  next 
spring  three  more  wires  should  be  stretched,  twelve 
inches  apart,  above  the  lower  wire.  The  vines  should 
then  be  tied  horizontally  along  the  lower  wire,  the 
same  as  the  season  before.  After  growth  commences 
pinch  off  the  buds  so  that  the  shoots  will  be  from  ten 
to  twelve  inches  apart.  As  these  grow,  train  them 
perpendicularly  and  tie  them  to  the  wires  above.  No 
fruit  should  be  allowed  to  set  that  season  above  the 
second  wire  from  the  ground.  As  these  shoots  grow 
pinch  them  back  during  the  season,  after  they  get 
above  the  top  wire  of  the  trellis.  Laterals  will  then 
grow  and  part  of  them  can  be  pinched  off.  A  well- 
appointed  trellised  vineyard  is  to  be  seen  in  Fig.  67. 

One  of  the  best  tools  with  which  to  cultivate  is  a 
one-horse  plow  with  five  shovels.  A  one-horse  harrow 
will  also  be  a  very  useful  aid.  The  vineyard  does  not 
need  to  be  cultivated   very   deep,    but   often.     The 


THE   VINEYARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS. 


307 


third  and  after  years,  vines  must  be  well  cultivated — 
not  less  than  four  times,  and  six  would  be  better.  It 
will  also  be  necessary  to  hoe  them  several  times  dur- 
ing the  season. 

Irrigation. — The  amount  of  water  used  and  the 
time  for  using  it  depends  entirely  upon  the  quality  of 


FIG.  67 — TRELLISED   VINEYARD. 


the  soil.  Give  a  good  soaking  about  once  in  two 
weeks,  not  oftener.  When  you  do  irrigate,  irrigate 
thoroughly  or  not  at  all.  The  second  season  once  in 
tliree  weeks  will  be  enough.  In  all  cases  follow  the 
watering  with  the  cultivation,  as  described,  and  do  not 
think  of  giving  the  one  without  the  other.     After  the 


308  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

vines  are  bearing  heavily  they  may  be  watered  more 
liberally.  However,  even  then  no  more  than  two  irri- 
gations are  recommended  forcompadl  soils.  And  even 
in  the  lightest  and  sandiest  soils  irrigations  at  periods 
less  than  ten  days  are  not  pracfticable.  On  these  light 
and  sandy  soils,  however,  irrigation  must  be  much 
more  frequent  than  on  heavier  ones. 

The  European  varieties  are  especially  susceptible  to 
over-irrigation.  They  are  not  slow  in  calling  a  halt 
where  too  much  surface  water  is  applied.  The  vines 
grow  fast  and  appear  to  be  doing  well  under  repeated 
irrigations;  but  the  fruit  is  pra<5lically  a  failure. 
Where  there  is  any  moisture  in  the  soil  from  fall  irri- 
gation or  winter  rains  it  is  advisable  to  delay  irriga- 
tion till  the  fruit  is  forming,  and  then  apply  the  water 
but  once  or  twice  at  the  most.  Never  irrigate  during 
the  opening  of  the  flower,  the  least  possible  during  the 
days  before,  and  by  preference  irrigate  when  the  fruit 
begins  to  enlarge.  For  inexperienced  people,  it  is 
more  prudent  to  irrigate  in  trenches  passing  near  the 
plants,  and  not  by  flooding  the  whole  surface  of  the 
ground. 

One  must  introduce  in  the  soil  alternately  much 
air  and  little  water.  Take  as  a  guide  for  cultivating, 
the  state  of  the  soil;  and  for  irrigating,  the  condition 
of  the  plant.  These  very  simple  principles  are  not 
generally  understood  by  those  who  have  not  practiced 
irrigation — they  give  too  much  water  and  too  little 
cultivation,  and,  above  all,  give  them  at  improper 
times.  Subsurface  irrigation  is  well  adapted  to  grape 
culture,  as  the  roots  all  penetrate  to  great  depth. 
Where  underground  pipes  are  laid  near  the  foots  of 


THE   VINEYARD   AND   SMALL   FRUITS.  309 

the  vine,  they  will  in  a  measure  overcome  the  bad 
effects  of  over-irrigation,  and  carry  away  much  of  the 
surface  surplus  water.  In  fertilizing  grape-vines  the 
best  method  is  to  place  the  manure  on  the  soil  between 
the  vines  in  rows,  and  let  its  strength  penetrate  to  the 
roots. 

Foreign  Grapes. — There  are  many  warm  valleys 
throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  south  of  the 
fortieth  parallel  and  west  of  the  Continental  divide, 
where  the  foreign,  European,  or  California  varieties  of 
grapes  thrive  splendidly  under  irrigation.  It  is  always 
quite  essential  to  seledl  land  with  thorough  drainage, 
and  if  possible  with  a  slope  to  the  south.  Plant  the 
ground  so  that  the  rows  for  irrigating  will  not  be  over 
ten  rods  in  length.  Make  the  rows  eight  feet  apart, 
and  set  the  plants  six  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Different 
localities  must  experiment  to  some  extent  to  find  the 
varieties  best  adapted  to  the  particular  soil  and  climate. 
Scoria  and  decomposed  granite  can  always  be  chosen  as 
soil  well  adapted  to  these  fruits.  For  sheltered  locali- 
ties Muscat,  Malaga,  Purple  Damascus,  Rose  of  Peru, 
Black  Farrar,  Black  Spanish,  Black  Hamburg,  Flame 
Tokay,  Cornichon,  and  Sweetwater  are  suitable. 
Thompson's  Seedless  and  the  Sultana  also  do  well.  In 
localities  having  frost  in  winter  the  vines  must  be  cov- 
ered. After  early  frost  comes  prune  off  all  the  vines, 
leaving  only  three  or  four  stalks  to  the  plant  and  from 
two  to  three  buds  to  the  stalk  or  vine,  always  leaving 
new  wood.  It  is  best  not  to  irrigate  much  the  latter 
part  of  July  and  August  until  the  grapes  begin  to  show 
signs  of  coloring  ;  then  irrigate  again,  and  they  will  fill 
out  much  better  and  ripen  more   evenly.     Work   is 


3IO  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

needed  in  the  vineyard  before  and  after  the  bunches  or 
clusters  are  formed,  pulling  out  the  suckers  and  pinch- 
ing back  the  vines,  which  draw  heavily  on  the  sap  that 
should  go  to  the  wood-bearing  fruit. 

As  a  general  resume  of  this  entire  grape  sub je<5l,  the 
author  would  like  to  repeat  a  few  cautionary  remarks. 
If  two-year-old  vines  of  domestic  or  foreign  varieties 
are  well  irrigated  at  the  time  of  planting  and  once 
every  two  weeks  afterward  it  is  quite  sufficient  the 
first  season.  The  next  year  once  in  three  weeks  is 
ordinarily  quite  enough,  but  keep  up  cultivation,  as  it 
is  better  than  an  irrigatioji.  After  this  three  good  irri- 
gations during  a  season  is  usually  quite  enough,  and 
vines  will  do  much  better  than  if  irrigated  every  week. 
Very  frequently  vines  seem  to  become  stunted  and  the 
leaves  will  fall  off  prematurely.  Some  people  think 
the  vines  are  then  diseased,  but  the  trouble  is  too  much 
water.  Do  not  let  the  water  stand  around  the  vines 
more  than  half  an  hour  during  irrigation.  If  this  is 
negle(5led  there  will  very  likely  be  trouble,  especially 
with  some  varieties.  In  all  the  irrigation  operations  it 
is  advisable  to  diredl  the  water  as  deeply  into  the  soil 
as  possible  in  order  to  create  the  downward  tendency 
of  the  roots,  especially  in  the  earlier  growth  of  the 
plants.  The  deep-trenching  system  described  in  the 
orchard  chapter  will  prove  invaluable,  but  caution 
must  be  taken  to  observe  that  the  underground  has 
perfec5l  drainage. 

Raspberries. — Any  land  that  will  produce  good 
crops  of  corn  or  wheat  is  suitable  for  raspberries,  and, 
unlike  strawberries,  they  are  benefited  by  a  good  deal 
of  shade.     Prepare  the  ground  thoroughly  and  manure 


THE  VINEYARD  AND   SMAI,L   FRUITS.  3 II 

liberally.  Ground  bone  is  a  specific  fertilizer  for  the 
raspberry.  Keep  the  soil  loose  and  free  of  weeds 
throughout  the  season,  cutting  down  the  suckers  with 
a  hoe  or  cultivator,  and  leaving  only  three  or  four 
canes  to  a  hill  or  single  row  for  fruiting.  Aim  to 
plant  an  assortment,  so  as  to  lengthen  the  fruiting  sea- 
son. The  red  varieties  should  be  planted  for  field  cul- 
ture in  rows  six  feet  apart  and  the  plants  three  feet 
distant  in  rows,  thus  requiring  2,400  plants  to  the 
acre,  or  four  feet  each  way  if  to  be  cultivated  in  hills, 
requiring  2,700  plants  to -the  acre.  It  is  best  to  place 
two  plants  in  each  hill,  taking,  of  course,  double  the 
number.  In  garden  culture  plant  three  feet  apart  each 
way  and  restri(5l  to  hills.  As  soon  as  planted  cut  back 
the  canes  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground,  and 
plants  set  in  autumn  should  have  the  soil  mounded  up 
over  them  to  protect  them  from  frequent  freezing  and 
thawing.  In  spring  the  earth  should  be  leveled  down 
again.  In  pruning  the  bearing  canes  cut  them  back 
one-half  their  length  on  an  average,  but  all  of  the  same 
hight  from  the  ground.  The  red  raspberry  requires  a 
good  deal  of  moisture,  and  if  planted  in  shady  places 
irrigation  need  not  be  so  frequent  as  when  occupying 
dry  positions.  Raspberries  can  be  planted  between  the 
rows  in  an  apple  orchard,  and  in  this  way  they  would 
necessarily  receive  the  same  amount  of  irrigation  and 
cultivation.  It  is  quite  essential  to  irrigate  raspberries 
as  soon  as  the  canes  are  planted,  and  if  an  even  mois- 
ture is  kept  in  the  soil  throughout  the  growing  season 
the  plants  will  continue  to  thrive.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  irrigate  during  the  week  of  blossoming,  and  water 
must  be  withheld  after  the  first  of  September.     We 


312  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

make  it  a  rule  to  irrigate  raspberries  after  each  picking, 
as  this  seems  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  fruit  and 
develop  larger  and  more  salable  berries.  Black  rasp- 
berries do  not  demand  as  much  shade  or  irrigation  as 
do  the  red  varieties.  In  October  the  canes  should  be 
laid  down  and  covered  with  earth  for  the  winter,  and 
it  is  advisable  always  to  irrigate  the  entire  plantation 
before  the  canes  are  uncovered  in  the  spring,  particu- 
larly if  the  ground  is  dry  at  the  time. 

Blackberries. — These  canes  should  be  laid  down 
in  the  fall  before  all  the  leaves  have  fallen,  for  if  de- 
layed until  later  the  canes  are  likely  to  snap  and  break. 
Irrigate  generally  the  same  as  for  raspberries,  and  give 
heed  to  plenty  of  water  during  the  fruiting  period.  A 
safe  rule  at  this  time  would  be  to  irrigate  the  rows 
once  a  week  and  keep  off  the  water  just  as  soon  as 
fruitage  is  over,  in  order  that  the  wood  may  harden 
preparatory  for  winter.  Too  much  water  during  the 
warmer  da3^s  of  summer  is  likely  to  encourage  the  ten- 
dency to  rust,  and  this  is  amatter  that  must  be  guarded 
against  by  the  careful  irrigator.  Dewberries  are  a 
species  of  vine  blackberries  that  may  be  treated  the 
same  as  the  cane  fruits,  only  that  they  are  capable  of 
taking  more  water  throughout  the  season,  but  may  re- 
quire less,  as  their  foliage  is  calculated  to  shade  the 
ground  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  loss  of  moisture  by 
evaporation.  The  dewberry  will  generally  take  care 
of  all  the  water  that  may  be  given  it  in  moderate  doses, 
and  the  adlual  condition  of  the  soil  should  govern  the 
number  of  irrigations. 

Gooseberries. — This  fruit  is  not  grown  so  com- 
monly as  it  might  be,  and  may  be  called  the  neglected 


THK   VINEYARD   AND   SMALL   FRUITS.  313 

child  of  the  garden.  Prepare  the  soil  in  the  spring  by 
deep  plowing — digging  is  even  better.  Turn  it  over  to 
the  depth  of  two  feet  by  first  opening  a  trench,  say  two 
feet  wide,  across  the  patch.  Spread  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  well-decomposed  manure,  not  less  than 
three  inches  deep,  while  six  inches  will  do  better. 
Then  turn  it  all  over  into  the  trench  already  opened. 
Do  this  until  the  whole  of  the  ground  is  well  cultivated 
to  the  depth  of  two  feet,  then  plant  out  the  bushes  four 
feet  apart  each  way  and  keep  them  well  cultivated  all 
through  the  summer.  In  the  fall  give  a  good  top- 
dressing  of  well- rotted  stable  manure.  lyct  the  winter 
snow  come  on  it  to  leach  down  to  the  roots.  When 
spring  opens  turn  it  all  into  the  ground,  and  the  founda- 
tion is  laid  for  producing  good  gooseberries.  During 
winter  prune  the  bushes  vigorously.  Have  one  main 
trunk  if  possible,  and  a  head  composed  of  about  six 
branches.  Pinch  out  the  growth  during  summer 
where  it  is  not  wanted,  and  prune  back  in  winter  fully 
one-third  of  the  summer's  growth.  The  objecft  is  to 
let  plenty  of  light  and  air  into  the  head  of  the  bush. 
This  will  prevent  every  sign  of  mildew.  If  these 
diredlions  are  followed,  always  bearing  in  mind  to 
stimulate  by  annually  manuring  and  thinning  out  the 
fruit,  berries  can  be  produced  of  the  Whitesmith, 
Crown  Bob  or  Lancashire  Red  varieties  that  will  be  one 
and  a  half  inches  in  length.  Two  or  three  good  irri- 
gations during  the  fruiting  season  should  be  given,  and 
once  a  month  prior  thereto  ought  to  be  sufficient. 

Currant  culture  should  be  carried  out  in  much  the 
same  way.  The  adlual  water  required  does  not  differ 
at  all  from  that  demanded  by  the  gooseberry,  and  the 


314  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

cultivation  of  the  ground  is  identically  the  same.  After 
three  years  old,  all  old  wood  should  be  cut  from  the 
currant  bushes,  and  thus  the  bush  be  renewed  from 
year  to  year.  Besides,  new  growth  should  be  contin- 
ually shortened-in  during  the  growing  season  to  stim- 
ulate production  of  side  branches.  Even  the  laterals 
should  be  nipped  in  a  few  inches.  This  will  form  a 
strong  bush  and  increase  the  fruit.  There  should  be 
an  abundance  of  moisture  at  fruitage,  as  it  will  greatly 
aid  fruit  development  in  size,  yield  and  general  appear- 
ance. For  lack  of  better  sorts  the  writer  is  growing 
the  old-fashioned  Red  Dutch  with  marked  success,  but 
the  war  upon  insedls  is  no  small  part  of  the  -labor 
involved. 

Cranberries. — The  first  requisite  is  level  land  in 
order  to  flood  with  water.  An  adequate  supply  of  fresh 
water  must  be  at  hand  on  a  higher  level  which  can 
be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  land  is  first  dug  over 
and  all  the  roots  taken  out,  so  as  to  subdue  all  vege- 
table growth,  which  would  interfere  with  the  growth 
of  the  cranberry  plants.  The  ground  is  smoothed  per- 
fectly level  and  then  is  sanded  to  the  depth  of  four  to 
five  inches.  The  plants  are  set  sixteen  inches  apart 
each  way.  Under  such  conditions  they  grow  some- 
what slowly.  This  seems  necessary  to  secure  best  re- 
sults. A  strong,  rapid  growth  means  rank  vines  and 
little  fruit.  The  vines  are  of  creeping  habit  similar  to 
the  strawberry,  making  runners  that  strike  root  at  in- 
tervals and  throw  up  fruit  branches.  Some  growers 
prefer  to  plant  in  rows  two  or  three  feet  apart  with 
trenches  between.  The  objecft  of  the  sand  is  to  more 
effedlually  smother  all  other  vegetation  than  the  cran- 


THE   VINEYARD   AND   SMALL   FRUITS.  315 

berry  vines  in  the  bog  and  to  induce  such  growth  as 
will  give  the  largest  crop  of  berries.  The  bogs  so 
treated,  do  not  reach  full  bearing  until  the  fifth  year, 
though  there  is  quite  a  little  fruit  borne  the  second  year 
and  more  each  succeeding  one.  The  expense  of  estab- 
lishing such  a  bog  is  reckoned  at  from  $300  to  $500  an 
acre,  and  bogs  that  are  well  established  will  last  for 
twenty-five  years  and  longer. 

Constant  attention  is  required  to  keep  the  bog  clear 
from  other  growth  until  the  vines  cover  the  ground, 
and  hand-weeding  after  the  first  year  is  all  that  can  be 
done.  The  varieties  most  generally  grown  are  Early 
Black,  Late  Dark  Red,  Cape  Cod  Beauty,  Chitman 
Bugle,  and  the  McFarland.  The  usual  price  for  plants 
among  growers  is  $3.00  a  barrel,  and  four  to  five  barrels 
of  plants  are  required  to  set  an  acre.  Root  cuttings 
are  generally  used,  and  root  much  more  quickly  than 
stem  cuttings.  Of  course,  entire  plants  can  beset  out, 
but  this  is  unnecessarily  expensive  where  a  large  area 
is  to  be  planted.  After  the  bog  is  established  the  work 
is  chiefly  of  light  charadter.  An  important  point  in 
the  establishment  of  a  bog  is  the  seledlion  of  sand  suit- 
able to  cover  the  ground.  This  should  be  coarse  and 
of  porous  nature,  which  will  let  the  water  through 
readily.  If  it  has  some  gravel  all  the  better,  but  it 
should  contain  no  soil. 

By  irrigating  cranberry  bogs  two  advantages  are 
assured.  The  vines  are  protected  from  the  heaving  of 
frost  in  winter  and  from  the  depredations  of  worms, 
which  are  very  destruc5live  in  spring.  Although  irri- 
gation is  essential  in  growing  cranberries  to  perfection, 
good  drainage  is  also  necessary  and  the  ordinary  system 


3l6  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

of  drainage  is  by  open  ditches.  A  brook  or  ditch  in 
most  cases  supplies  a  meadow  with  water,  which  runs 
or  is  lead  through.  The  water  is  dammed  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  bog  and  allowed  to  back  up,  thus  completely 
covering  it  in  a  few  hours.  The  usual  time  for  flood- 
ing is  from  the  last  of  October  to  May,  and  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  of  water  is  sufficient.  Where  the 
vine  worm  is  destrucflive  it  is  well  to  flood  the  ground 
for  twenty-four  hours  the  latter  part  of  June,  and  other 
irrigations  may  be  necessary  throughout  the  summer 
season.  Weeds  and  marsh  grass  growing  among  the 
plants  are  a  great  detriment  and  will  soon  run  them 
out. 

Harvesting  time  varies  with  growers  in  different 
localities.  Berries  picked  in  August  are  bitter  and  will 
not  keep  so  long  as  those  picked  later.  In  order  to 
have  the  best  cranberries,  they  should  not  be  harvested 
before  the  middle  of  September.  Then  they  will  keep 
well  into  spring.  Before  the  pickers  take  the  field, 
lines  of  twine  are  usually  stretched  across  the  bog  so  as 
to  make  parallel  rows  about  a  yard  wide.  One  picker 
is  assigned  a  place  in  each  of  these  rows  and  must  pick 
the  berries  clean .  Pickers  seldom  earn  more  than  $3 .  00 
a  day  by  hand-picking,  and  one  must  work  steadily 
and  rapidly  to  earn  $2.00.  Rakes  are  not  liked  by 
many  growers.  After  the  picking  is  over  the  berries 
are  screened  and  sorted.  This  sorting  may  be  done  by 
hand  or  by  a  separator.  The  latter  saves  time  and 
labor,  but  bruises  many  of  the  berries,  injuring  the 
keeping  qualities.  The  yield  of  a  well-made  bog 
reaches  200  or  more  barrels  to  the  acre. 

Capers. — These  Asiatic  shrubs  are  not  grown  much 


THE   VINEYARD    AND    SMALL    FRUITS.  317 

in  America,  although  their  culture  here,  especially  in 
the  arid  regions  under  irrigation,  is  practicable,  and  will 
some  day  become  quite  general.  The  shrub  is  multi- 
plied by  seeds,  cuttings  or  layerings.  Plant  in  the 
same  way  as  for  the  grape-vine,  but  in  holes  less  deep 
and  with  shorter  cuttings.  Sow  the  seeds  in  February, 
or  earlier  if  the  climate  permits,  anywhere  in  the  gar- 
den, as  lettuce  and  cabbage  .seeds  are  sown,  then  later 
on  dig  out  and  transplant.  Irrigate  at  once,  and  again 
in  a  few  days  if  the  plants  show  signs  of  faltering. 
Replace,  the  first  year,  all  that  may  die.  Plant  in 
squares  from  four  to  five  feet  distant.  Weed  very 
much  the  first  year,  and  less  the  following  years. 
Prune  the  plants  each  year  by  cutting  the  branches 
nearest  the  trunk.  If  in  a  country  where  it  does  not 
freeze,  prune  in  the  fall ;  if  in  a  country  where  the 
winters  are  severe,  trim  the  branches  at  eight  inches  in 
the  fall,  cover  up  with  earth  before  cold  weather,  and 
in  the  spring  uncover  the  plants  and  trim  shorter. 
Manure  now  and  again,  and  by  preference  use  bone 
powder.  Irrigate  only  when  the  plant  suffers  and 
shows  the  need  of  water. 

Strawberries. — If  one  wishes  to  experiment  in  a 
small  way  on  the  efficacy  of  irrigation,  a  strawberry  bed 
is  a  good  thing  upon  which  to  pra(5lice.  Strawberries 
do  well  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  as  a  rule  the  deep, 
moist,  loamy  soil  will  yield  best  results.  Boggy  or 
swampy  spots,  however,  should  be  avoided.  It  is  the 
common  experience  that  light,  warm  soils  yield  the 
earliest  and  highest  flavored  berries,  and  heavy  soils 
the  later  and  larger  ones;  but  the  size  of  the  berry  de- 
pends more  upon  the  supply  of  available  moisture,  and 


31 8  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

immense  fruit  can  be  produced  on  loose,  open  soils  by 
free  irrigation  and  the  application  of  plenty  of  manure. 
Yet  the  heavier  soil,  both  because  of  its  usually  superior 
fertility  and  retention  of  moisture,  is  preferred  for  the 
strawberry. 

Plants  for  setting  out  are  secured  by  taking  off  the 
small  growths  rooted  from  runners.  The  strongest 
plants  are  those  nearest  to  the  parent  plant.  They 
may  be  set  out  either  in  the  spring  or  fall,  or  at  any 
time  when  the  ground  is  warm  and  in  good  condition. 
At  planting  shorten  the  roots  to  three  inches,  and  be 
sure  the  plants  do  not  become  dry  while  the  planting 
proceeds.  It  is  advisable  to  carry  the  plants  in  a 
bucket  that  has  water  in  it.  If  plants  have  been 
received  by  mail  or  express,  they  are  invigorated  by 
soaking  in  water  a  few  hours  before  planting. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  first  essential  for  suc- 
cess in  strawberry  growing  is  to  plow  or  dig  the  soil  at 
least  ten  inches  deep,  and  during  the  fall  or  early 
winter  months  work  in  deeply  as  much  composted  cow 
and  hen  manure  as  the  soil  will  hold.  Have  the  sur- 
face thoroughly  pulverized  and  graded  in  the  spring 
so  that  the  water  will  flow  slowly  in  the  ditches.  The 
spring  plowing  should  be  shallow.  There  are  various 
ways  of  laying  out  strawberry  plantations.  Some  give 
flat  cultivation  and  plant  in  single  rows  two  and  a  half 
or  three  feet  apart.  Others  make  low  ridges  two  and 
a  half  to  three  feet  wide,  while  between  the  ridges  is  a 
furrow  for  irrigation  which  also  serves  for  a  passage 
when  the  beds  are  being  weeded  or  the  fruit  gathered. 
It  is  best  to  arrange  these  furrows  so  that  the  water 
runs  down  one  furrow  and  back  in  the  next,  the  fall 


THK   VINEYARD    AND    SMAI.I,    FRUITS.  319 

of  the  land  not  being  as  the  furrows  run,  but  from  the 
first  to  the  last.  Before  planting,  the  water  should  be 
run  on,  so  as  to  see  that  the  irrigation  is  so  arranged 
that  it  just  reaches  to  within  two  inches  of  the  edges 
of  the  ridges. 

Planting  and  Cultivating. — The  plants  should 
be  set  out  a  foot  apart  on  the  south  side  of  the  ridges, 
two  inches  above  the  water-mark,  so  that  the  water  will 
not  run  over  the  crowns.  They  then  draw  up  the 
moisture  through  the  roots  by  capillary  attradlion, 
and  the  surface  of  the  beds  does  not  bake  as  it  would 
do  by  flooding.  The  fruit  is  not  damaged  by  muddy 
water.  In  transplanting,  it  is  best  to  have  the  roots 
spread  out  fan-shaped,  and  the  soil  should  be  well 
packed  around  them,  which  we  consider  of  great  im- 
portance. Plant,  if  possible,  on  a  cloudy  day;  but  if 
this  cannot  be  done,  the  plants  must  be  irrigated  at 
once.  Run  the  cultivator  through  the  patch  once  a 
week.  A  good  irrigation  every  two  weeks  is  usually 
sufficient  during  the  first  season,  and  when  the  run- 
ners begin  to  grow  train  them  so  that  plants  will  be 
six  inches  apart,  which  gives  a  narrow  row.  After 
the  desired  space  is  covered  keep  the  runners  cut  off. 
Shading  is  a  great  help  to  newly  set  plants,  especially 
to  those  set  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  but  of  course 
this  is  impradlicable  in  the  case  of  extensive  planting. 
Keep  the  cultivator  going  and  do  not  allow  the  plants 
to  suffer  for  water.  As  the  runners  begin  to  grow, 
let  the  inside  shovel  on  the  cultivator  draw  them 
lengthwise  of  the  rows.  As  soon  as  the  ground  freezes 
in  winter,  cover  the  entire  patch  with  coarse  straw,  or 
light  barnyard  manure,  as  free  from  weed  seed  as  may 


320  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

be.  This  mulch  is  to  be  allowed  to  remain  until  the 
plants  show  signs  of  blooming  in  the  spring,  when  it  is 
to  be  raked  from  the  rows  to  the  spaces  between.  Fur- 
rows for  watering  are  then  to  be  opened  on  one  or  both 
sides  of  each  row. 

Irrigating. — The  preliminary  work  of  the  first 
year  is  all  that  is  required  in  the  way  of  cultivation, 
and  the  second  year's  irrigation  need  only  be  sufficient 
to  keep  the  soil  in  moist  tilth  until  the  critical  period 
of  fruitage,  when  a  good  deal  of  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary, but  the  soil  must  not  become  soaked.  The  fruit- 
ing season  may  be  prolonged  from  four  to  six  weeks 
by  having  made  a  good  selecflion  of  early  and  late 
plants.  After  the  fruit  is  set  use  less  water  on  the 
early  varieties  and  more  on  the  late.  It  is  a  good 
rule  to  irrigate  immediately  after  the  bed  or  a  portion 
thereof  has  been  picked,  as  the  supplied  moisture  will 
be  largely  instrumental  in  more  perfedlly  developing 
the  un ripened  fruit,  and  bring  it  to  more  complete 
fruition.  It  is  a  good  plan,  in  the  spring,  to  remove 
the  winter  mulch  from  the  crowns  of  the  plants  only, 
allowing  that  portion  covering  the  furrows  to  remain. 
Irrigation  waters  passing  under  this  mulch  will  have 
a  beneficial  effed:  in  fertilizing  the  soil  and  assisting 
plant  nutrition.  After  the  crop  is  gathered  the  mulch 
may  be  removed.  Some  growers  go  so  far  as  to  run  a 
mowing-machine  over  the  patch,  set  as  high  as  possible, 
to  cut  of  the  tops  of  leaves  and  all  the  new  weeds,  after 
which  the  rubbish  is  all  raked  up  together  and  drawn 
off.  Then  cultivate  through  the  center  of  the  paths, 
apply  a  coat  of  well-rotted  manure  all  over  the  ground, 
harrow  and  cross-harrow  with  weights  on  the  drag. 


THS  VINEYARD   AND  SMAl^Iy  FRUITS.  32 1 

and  then  flood  the  water  all  over  the  lot  and  allow  it 
to  soak  for  two  days.  When  again  dry  cultivate  often 
and  irrigate  enough  only  to  keep  tlie  surface  moist. 
This  is  done  to  encourage  the  new  fibrous  roots  to 
grow  and  form  new  fruit  crowns  for  the  succeeding 
year's  crop.  The  old  crowns  soon  die  under  this 
treatment.  The  winter  care  is  the  same  as  that  of.  the 
preceding  season. 

Subirrigation. — It  is  about  twenty  years  since  a 
patent  was  granted  for  a  system  of  perforated  tiles  laid 
under  the  surface  for  watering  land,  but  it  was  found 
that  the  common  drain-tiles  would  answer  the  same 
purpose  in  every  respedl.  There  is  no  doubt  that  for 
strawberry  culture  this  mode  of  irrigation  would  pay 
exceedingly  well.  Tiles  are  laid  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  for  draining,  but  not  so  deep  and  not  so  far 
apart.  It  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  how  much 
water  is  to  be  supplied,  and  much  pressure  is  not 
necessary.  With  as  much  as  twenty-five  pounds  to 
the  inch,  which  is  equal  to  a  head  of  fifty-five  feet,  the 
probability  is  that  the  water  would  be  forced  above 
the  surface  and  flow  on  the  top.  This  is  not  desirable, 
but  only  to  keep  the  subsoil  moist  enough  to  supply 
the  crops  in  a  dry  time.  Rows  of  tiles  twelve  feet 
apart  have  been  found  sufiicient  in  a  light  sandy  soil, 
and  in  a  clay  it  would  doubtless  be  necessary  to  pro- 
vide drainage  for  the  surplus,  or  the  distribution  must 
be  very  carefully  made.  A  small  head,  three  feet  for 
instance,  is  quite  enough  to  secure  the  even  distribu- 
tion of  the  water.  As  in  drainage,  the  water-supply 
is  carried  to  the  small  tiles  in  larger  ones,  estimated  as 
to  size  by  the  area  to  be  supplied.    In  fa<5l,  it  is  simply 


322  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

drainage  reversed,  and  thus  everything  about  it  is 
reversed  precisely,  the  feeding  source  being  equivalent 
to  the  outlet  of  the  drains  and  the  discharge  corre- 
sponding to  the  colle<5ling  tiles  in  the  drains. 

Irrigating  from  Water-Mains. — In  describing 
an  experiment  with  irrigation  in  Eastern  Kansas,  B.  F. 
Smith,  of  Lawrence,  says  :  "I  laid  iron  pipe  on  top  of 
the  ground  along  the  roadways  through  a  strawberry 
patch  of  two  and  one-fourth  acres.  Three  hundred  of 
the  five  hundred  feet  of  pipe  used  is  common  inch  iron, 
and  two  hundred  feet  is  half-inch  galvanized  iron  pipe. 
At  intervals  of  about  one  hundred  feet  are  water-cocks, 
or  faucets,  for  attaching  a  three-fourths  inch  rubber 
hose.  This  hose,  being  one  hundred  feet  in  length, 
enabled  me  to  reach  the  entire  berry  patch.  Beginning 
at  the  first  faucet  I  watered  all  within  reach  of  it,  then 
moved  the  hose  to  the  second  faucet,  and  so  on,  till  the 
whole  patch  was  watered.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  experiment  I  used  a  nozzle  in  the  manner  that  we 
water  our  lawns,  but  soon  discovered  that  the  better 
way  was  to  dispense  with  the  nozzle,  and  let  the  water 
run  out  on  the  rows  of  berries  from  the  end  of  the 
open  hose.  Water  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  about  a 
gallon  to  every  twenty  inches  in  length  of  row.  This 
amount  of  water  thoroughly  soaked  the  rows,  but  not 
the  entire  space  between  the  rows,  which  is  not  neces- 
sary to  the  well-ripening  of  berries,  as  the  water-supply 
is  wanted  among  the  roots.  Then,  to  have  watered 
the  two-feet  space  between  the  rows  would  have  taken 
double  the  amount  of  water,  with  no  addition  of  fruit. 

'  *  The  irrigation  was  all  done  at  night.  The  time 
taken  to  go  over  the  patch  was  twenty-eight  hours. 


THK    VINEYARD    AND   SMALI.    FRUITS.  323 

and  the  cost  to  apply  the  water  was  ten  cents  an  hour. 
I  used  16,000  gallons  of  water  the  first  application  and 
10,000  gallons  the  second  application.  There  was  an 
interval  of  a  week  between  the  waterings.  The  water 
company  charged  fifteen  cents  for  i,ooo  gallons.  The 
piping  and  hose  cost  $60;  water,  $5.25;  application  to 
the  plants,  $5.60;  total,  $70.85.  I  got  the  water- 
plant  ready  to  work  May  19th.  Up  to  this  time  I  had 
picked  the  patch  over  three  times,  and  in  my  estimate 
of  the  crop  by  those  pickings  I  would  have  got  about 
seventy-five  crates  off  the  patch,  but  with  the  use 
of  water  I  gathered  two  hundred  and  twenty-five 
24-quart  crates  of  berries.  In  facft,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  crates  might  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  my  irriga- 
tion experiment.  One  hundred  and  fifty  crates  at 
$2.10  a  crate,  the  average  of  the  crop,  figured  up  $315. 
Subtracfting  the  water  expense,  $70.85,  we  have  to  the 
cxedit  of  the  experiment  $244. 15." 


CHAPTER   XVI. 
ALL  ABOUT  ALFALFA. 


2 


LFAI.FA  is  the  greatest  forage  plant  the  world 
has  ever  known,  and  should  be  a  special  crop 
with  every  irrigation  farmer.  It  is  known 
scientifically  as  Medicago  sativa,  its  botanical 
name.  In  the  Spanish  language  it  is  alfalfa,  while  the 
French,  Swiss,  German,  and  Canadian  people  call  it 
lucern.  It  is  a  leguminous  perennial,  and  properly 
belongs  to  the  pea- vine  family.  It  is  often  miscalled  a 
grass.  Its  term  of  existence  has  not  been  authentically 
established,  but  it  will  last  the  average  age  of  man, 
and  instead  of  depleting  the  soil  it  has  a  way,  through 
its  root  nodules,  of  constantly  replenishing  the  soil 
with  the  nitrogenous  fertilizing  elements  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

The  writer  once  met  a  jij:gnerable  padre  of  Old 
Mexico,  who  said  his  alfalfa  patch  had  been  planted 
over  two  hundred  years,  had  never  been  reseeded  dur- 
ing that  time^  and  had  yielded  four  crops  of  hay  regu- 
larly every  year.  The  history  of  this  most  wonderful 
plant  is  somewhat  shrouded  in  mystery,  but  the  Grecian 
historians  tell  us  that  it  was  brought  from  Media,  in 
Asia,  to  Greece,  in  Europe,  during  the  reign  of  Darius, 
about  five  hundred  years  before  Christ.  Its  culture 
extended  to  Rome,  thence  to  the  south  of  France, 
where  it  has  been  a  favorite  forage  plant.  It  grows 
324 


ALL   ABOUT   ALFALFA. 


325 


wild  with  great  luxuriance  on  the  pampas  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  It  was  brought  into  Mexico  by  the  early 
Spanish  Conquerors,  and  from  thence  found  its  way, 


FIG.  68 — ALFALFA  PLANT  IN  FULL  BLOOM. 


about  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  to  th^  Pacific 
coast  country,  now  Southern  California. 

It  did  not  reach  Colorado,  where  its  growth  has 
attained  a  state  of  perfe(5lion,  until  1862,  when  a  small 
quantity  of  seed  was  brought  from  Mexico  by  Major 


326  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Jacob  Downing,  who  planted  it  in  a  dooryard  in  Den- 
ver, and  from  whence  it  spread  until  to-day  it  covers 
many  thousands  of  acres  in  the  Rocky  mountain 
region,  and  extends  out  on  the  great  plains  as  far  east 
as  "the  Father  of  Waters."  A  single  .stool  of  the 
plant  is  honestly  portrayed  in  Fig.  68,  and  the  illus- 
tration is  not  exaggerated. 

Turkestan  Alfalfa.— The  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  has  of  late  been  taking  great 
credit  upon  itself  for  introducing  Turkestan  alfalfa  in 
this  country,  and  this  claim  may  have  some  signifi- 
cance with  those  who  do  not  know  that  Professor 
Blount  imported  seed  of  the  plant  to  Colorado  twenty 
years  previously.  After  having  observed  the  perform- 
ance of  this  variety  for  several  years,  the  writer  is  not 
satisfied  that  it  is  any  better  than  our  old-fashioned 
Medicago  sativa,  which  is  to-day  putting  more  money 
in  the  pockets  of  general  farmers  than  any  other 
known  forage  plant.  There  maybe  some  peculiarities 
about  Turkestan  which  are  in  reality  not  advantages. 
From  what  we  have  observed  the  seed  may  germinate 
much  quicker  and  the  plants  start  into  growth  earlier 
under  the  same  conditions  than  common  alfalfa.  The 
plants  are  probably  more  leafy,  but  I  do  not  believe 
they  grow  more  rapidly,  nor  have  a  stronger  and  more 
vigorous  root  system.  The  stems  are  said  to  be  more 
slender  and  less  woody,  the  plants  making  more  nutri- 
tious hay  of  finer  quality  than  the  average  grade  of 
common  alfalfa,  for  the  reason,  perchance,  that  the 
latter  has  not  been  sown  properly,  and  in  this  connec- 
tion it  might  be  well  to  add  that  this  is  a  very  common 
fault  when  it  comes  to  quality  in  the  hay.     There  can 


AI^L  ABOUT   ALFALFA.  327 

be  no  doubt  that  Turkestan  will  withstand  drouth 
under  the  same  conditions  as  well  as  ordinary  alfalfa, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  is  apt  to  succumb  more  readily 
to  winter-killing. 

In  concluding  our  remarks  regarding  some  of  the 
charadleristics  of  Turkestan  alfalfa,  the  writer  desires 
to  append  the  following  portion  of  a  communication 
received  in  1901  from  a  friend  in  Nebraska: 

* '  I  have  tested  this  alfalfa  as  carefully  as  any 
farmer  could.  I  sowed  the  seed  adjoining  a  piece  of 
common  alfalfa  and  thought  I  had  a  bonanza.  The 
second  year  I  cut  it  when  in  bloom  the  same  as  the 
common  variety,  thinking  to  get  seed  from  the  second 
crop.  Not  a  bloom  or  seed  did  I  see  that  fall,  and 
only  a  six-inch  second  growth.  I  blamed  a  dry  spell 
for  the  short  growth  and  the  failure  to  seed,  notwith- 
standing the  fadl  that  the  adjoining  plat  of  common 
alfalfa  went  booming  right  along  and  made  a  third 
crop.  In  the  second  year  from  sowing  I  was  very 
careful  to  cut  it  during  a  wet  spell.  This  time  we  got 
a  little  better  second  growth,  but  it  was  not  half  as 
high  as  the  common  variety  with  no  seed.  I  do  not 
believe  this  imported  variety  will  ever  produce  seed  on 
the  second  crop.  During  the  season  of  1900  I  deter- 
mined to  let  the  first  crop  go  to  seed,  and  did  succeed 
in  getting  a  few  specimens. ' ' 

Alfalfa  Soils. — There  is  a  good  deal  of  misappre- 
hension afloat  regarding  this  or  that  kind  of  soil  being 
unsuited  to  alfalfa  culture.  As  a  matter  of  fadl,  the 
soil  itself  cuts  but  very  little  figure  in  the  success  of 
the  crop  so  long  as  contaminating  influences  do  not 
come  in  to  lay  injury  upon  it.     Any  soil  will  do,  so 


328  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

long  as  it  has  a  porous  substratum  for  proper  drain- 
age, and  so  that  there  is  no  accumulation  of  surface 
water  to  injure  the  crown  and  root  of  the  plant.  Corn 
land  is  just  the  thing  for  alfalfa — any  soil  that  is  of  a 
friable  chara<5ler  answers  every  need  of  the  plant. 
And  carefully  seeded,  prote<5led,  and  cared  for  in  a 
common-sense  way,  failure  will  scarcely  result,  and 
winter-killing  need  not  be  feared,  as  the  plant  is  much 
more  hardy  than  red  clover.  Bench  land  is  preferable 
to  bottom  land,  and  sandy  loam  is  more  desirable  than 
clay,  though  some  clay  soils  answer  well  for  alfalfa, 
but  the  plants  are  longer  in  becoming  established. 
Alfalfa  should  not  be  sown  on  sod  for  the  reason  that 
so  valuable  and  permanent  a  crop  should  never  be  laid 
on  a  surface  rough  and  difficult  of  irrigation.  Where 
there  is  a  loamy  soil  * '  old  land ' '  is  best  upon  which 
to  sow  alfalfa,  and  should  be  plowed  deep,  and  if  not 
to  be  irrigated,  should  be  subsoiled.  With  sandy  land 
over  very  porous  subsoil,  where  irrigation  is  not  prac- 
ticed, good  success  often  results  from  seeding  on  sod. 
On  land  of  this  nature  thorough  surface  preparation 
without  subsoiling  will  probably  give  the  most  satis- 
facftory  results. 

Preparing  the  Land. — In  starting  alfalfa  the 
first  point  claiming  consideration  is  the  seledlion  and 
preparation  of  the  soil.  The  plowing  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  done  in  the  fall,  and  in  the  arid  regions  the 
use  of  the  subsoil  plow  is  almost  an  imperative  neces- 
sity. In  the  spring,  before  seeding,  the  land  should 
be  carefully  graded  to  a  surface  so  even  as  to  obviate 
the  necessity  for  the  irrigator  ever  to  step  into  the 
growing  crop  to  force  the  water  with  a  shovel.     Who- 


ALI<  ABOUT  ALFALFA.  329 

ever  negledls  to  do  this  will,  when  too  late,  have 
abundant  and  unceasing  cause  to  repent  his  folly. 
The  labor  and  cost  of  grading  land  at  the  outset  are 
infinitesimal  compared  with  the  aggregate  labor  and 
loss  incurred  in  irrigating  rough,  uneven  land  twice  or 
thrice  each  season  for  an  indefinite  term  of  years.  In 
leveling  the  land  for  the  economical  distribution  of 
water  by  the  flooding  system,  the  writer  has  preferred 
to  use  the  Shuart  land  grader,  and  has  completely 
leveled  ten  acres  a  day  with  this  indispensable 
machine. 

After  grading,  and  immediately  before  sowing  the 
seed,  the  land  should  be  floodea.  A  good  irrigation  at 
this  stage  serves  a  threefold  purpose.  First,  it  reveals 
the  high  spots,  if  any  remain,  and  these  should  at 
once  be  worked  down  and  irrigated.  As  soon  there- 
after as  the  ground  will  bear  working,  the  seed  should 
be  sown.  Secondly,  irrigation  before  seeding  insures 
the  prompt  and  complete  germination  of  the  seed. 
This  is  a  point  of  vital  importance,  for  without  a 
dense  and  uniform  stand  of  plants  it  is  not  possible  to 
make  a  high  quality  of  alfalfa  hay.  If  the  stand  is 
thin  on  the  ground  the  stalks  will  be  coarse,  woody, 
and  indigestible,  and  in  curing  the  leaves  will  dry  and 
fall  off  before  the  stems  are  sufficiently  cured.  But 
if  the  stand  is  thick  the  stems  will  be  fine  and  the 
foliage  will  be  so  abundant  that  the  curing  process 
can  be  effedled  evenly  and  without  perceptible  loss  of 
leaves. 

Seeding. — Of  the  different  modes  of  seeding  with 
alfalfa,  the  most  common  method,  when  the  conditions 
are  favorable,  is  to  scatter  the  seed  over  a  surface 


330  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

which  has  been  finely  pulverized  and  not  crusted,  the 
sowing  being  done  very  early  in  the  spring.  The 
crumbling  of  the  soil  after  a  night's  freezing  partly  or 
wholly  covers  the  seed,  none  of  which  is  buried  so 
deep  as  to  prevent  germination.  The  seed  is  pro- 
tecfled  with  an  oily  covering  or  sac,  and  is  not  injured 
by  freezing.  With  spring  rains  enough  to  keep  the 
surface  moist  nearly  all  will  grow.  But  in  most  cases 
all  the  required  conditions  for  success  with  this  mode 
of  seeding  cannot  be  depended  on.  The  soil  well 
fitted  the  previous  autumn  may  have  become  so  crusted 
by  an  open  winter  as  to  prevent  the  seed  from  becom- 
ing covered  by  the  crumbling  soil,  or  an  early  drouth 
may  be  fatal  to  the  young  alfalfa.  Farmers  who  are 
familiar  with  the  seasons  will  decide  whether  to  adopt 
this  mode  of  seeding,  or  use  a  later  mode  by  har- 
rowing. Covering  the  seed  by  harrowing  prevents  a 
part  from  growing  by  burying  too  deep,  but  the  loss  of 
seed  in  this  way  is  less  than  many  suppose.  It  is  true 
that  alfalfa  seed  will  not  grow  if  buried  over  an  inch  in 
heavy  soil,  or  an  inch  and  a  half  in  a  light  one.  With 
a  light  harrow  not  more  than  half  the  seed  will  be 
buried  too  deep,  and  often  not  more  than  a  third,  and 
if  the  soil  surface  has  been  well  pulverized  all  the  rest 
will  grow.  The  writer  has  seen  old-fashioned  farmers 
**  brushing  in  "  broadcasted  seed,  and  the  plan  worked 
all  right.  In  his  own  experience  the  writer  has  always 
used  the  modern  press  drill,  with  the  tubes  set  at 
various  distances  apart,  according  to  the  purposes  of 
the  crop,  whether  for  pasture,  hay,  or  seed.  The  vari- 
ance is  from  four  to  nineteen  inches.  The  drill  should 
be  run  the  same  way  the  land  slopes,  so  that  irrigation 


AI.I.   ABOUT  ALFAI.FA.  33 1 

may  follow  the  drill  ways,  which  is  a  convenient  way 
of  applying  the  water  on  the  field.  Contadl  of  water 
in  irrigation  does  not  injure  the  plants  if  the  water  is 
not  kept  on  too  long  at  a  time  and  vSun-scald  is  guarded 
against.  Oats  or  wheat  are  often  put  in  as  a  nurse 
crop,  and  many  contend  for  this  prac5lice,  which  is  con- 
demned by  others.  The  oats  are  mixed  with  the 
alfalfa  seed  and  all  sown  together.  The  roots  of  the 
grain  hold  the  alfalfa  in  place  during  irrigation,  and 
the  subsequent  quick  growth  of  the  grain  serves  to 
shade  the  tender  alfalfa  shoots  from  the  blistering 
efFe<5ls  of  the  noonday  sun.  In  any  event,  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  seed  is  not  planted  too  deep,  thus 
preventing  free  germination.  Hence,  shallow  seeding 
with  the  drill  is  advised. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  be  sown  to  an  acre  will  be 
governed  largely  by  circumstances.  Primarily  the 
range  is  from  twelve  to  thirty  pounds  to  the.acre.  More 
is  required  in  broadcasting  than  in  drilling,  and  for 
fine  hay  the  stand  should  be  much  thicker  than  when 
only  a  seed  crop  is  desired.  The  amount  of  grain  put 
in  when  sown  with  alfalfa  is  but  a  trifle  less  than  the 
usual  demand.  When  seed  alone  is  the  desideratum, 
the  drill  should  be  employed  and  the  tubes  set  from 
fifteen  to  nineteen  inches  apart,  and  only  twelve  to 
fifteen  pounds  of  seed  should  be  placed  on  an  acre.  A 
good  ' '  catch ' '  is  more  desirable  usually  than  the 
acftual  number  of  pounds  to  the  acre,  but  a  good  rule 
for  a  common  crop  would  be  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
pounds,  and  one  using  this  quantity  will  not  go  astray 
in  his  expec5lations.  It  is  very  difficult  to  reseed  thin 
patches,  as  the  older  growth  is  so  rank  that  it  tends  to 


332  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

choke  out  the  younger  shoots.  We  have  found  that 
wherever  implements  may  be  used  for  covering  the 
seed,  the  work  should  be  followed  by  a  plank  drag  to 
smooth  and  compacft  the  surface.  Great  care  should 
be  exercised,  in  the  selection  of  seed,  to  see  that  the 
grains  are  plump  and  healthy,  and  that  it  is  scrupu- 
lously clean.  If  there  are  many  shrunken  seeds  rejecft 
the  whole  lot,  for  if  they  sprout  at  all  they  will  pro- 
duce only  puny,  worthless  plants.  By  all  means 
avoid  seed  that  may  contain  the  dodder  seed,  as  this 
enemy  is  very  fatal  to  alfalfa. 

Grain  with  Alfalfa. — Usually  the  best  grain  crop 
to  sow  with  alfalfa  is  the  second  crop  of  barley — that  is, 
on  good  fertile  soil  that  has  brought  a  bumper  crop  of 
barley  and  is  followed  by  barley  again.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions  the  second  crop  will  not  be  of  half  the 
weight  in  straw  and  grain  as  the  first  crop,  and  this 
permits  the  young  alfalfa  plants  to  get  a  better  supply 
of  sun,  air,  and  moisture.  In  most  cases  a  grain- 
alfalfa  field  is  irrigated  twice,  first  when  the  grain  is 
six  or  eight  inches  high  and  fairly  well  covering  the 
ground,  then  just  before  it  begins  to  head  out,  and  if 
the  grain  can  be  cut  and  hauled  off  the  meadow  by 
August  25th  it  will  be  excellent  for  the  alfalfa  to 
give  it  a  third  light  watering.  Usually  it  is  not 
advisable  to  irrigate  heavily  or  after  the  first  of  Sep- 
tember. It  will  then  have  ample  time  to  dry  out  before 
heavy  freezing  of  the  soil,  and  the  young  plants  will  not 
winter-kill  by  root  freezing  or  heaving,  as  will  happen 
in  the  case  of  late  irrigation.  The  eastern  farmer  who 
literally  looks  to  the  heavens  for  moisture  is  given  to 
sowing  grain  and  grass  seed  with  a  drill.     This  does 


ALL  ABOUT  ALFALFA.  333 

not  work  in  the  irrigated  mountain  states.  Sow  the 
grain  first.  Should  it  not  be  permissible  to  seed  with 
barley,  preference  should  be  given  to  wheat  or  speltz  as 
a  nurse  crop  over  oats.  The  latter  grows  too  dense  on 
the  ground  and  the  blades  are  too  close  to  afibrd  light, 
sunshine,  and  air  to  the  young  and  tender  plants. 
Grain  is  better  sown  with  a  drill  than  broadcast. 

The  form  of  seeding  seems  like  a  trivial  matter, 
but  there  is  good  reason  why  all  grain  should  be  drilled 
in  where  irrigation  is  practiced.  Young  grain  in  an 
ideal  condition  is  that  which  has  sprouted  and  grown 
quickly,  reaching  a  hight  of  six  or  eight  inches  with 
good  root  development  at  the  earliest  possible  moment, 
so  as  to  get  the  grain  up  to  the  point  where  the 
abnormal  evaporation  of  moisture  ceases.  Broadcasted 
grain  which  receives  the  customary  harrowing  is  never 
deeply  fixed  in  the  soil.  Much  of  it  is  on  the  surface, 
and  unless  the  weather  following  seeding  be  wet  and 
cloudy  is  likely  never  to  sprout.  That  which  is  one- 
half  inch  under  the  surface  will  start  growth  after  that 
which  is  two  or  more  inches  deep.  Again,  the  shallow- 
rooted  plants  do  not  have  a  good  chance  to  become 
established  until  after  those  of  deeper  planting,  with 
the  result  of  deeper  growth  and  development  and 
uneven  ripening.  All  of  these  conditions  are  unfavor- 
able to  grain  produdlion  in  irrigated  secflions.  On  the 
contrary,  in  case  of  drilled  grain,  the  seed  is  deposited 
at  uniform  depth  of  from  two  to  four  inches,  depending 
upon  the  set  of  the  seeder,  is  covered  with  a  uniform 
depth  of  soil,  is  subjedled  to  the  same  amount  of 
moisture,  and  is  bound  to  germinate  more  evenly  than 
broadcast  grain.     At  every  subsequent  stage  of  develop- 


334  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

meut  the  conditions  tend  to  a  greater  degree  of  uni- 
formity, so  that  the  drilling  in  of  grain  is  strongly 
advocated.  The  only  reason  for  broadcasting  is  per- 
haps that  it  can  be  done  more  speedily  and  expedi- 
tiously. After  the  grain  is  drilled  in  do  not  harrow 
until  after  the  alfalfa  seed  is  sown. 

Irrigating.— The  critical  time  with  alfalfa  is  the 
first  six  weeks  of  its  growth.  Flooding  during  this 
period  is  quite  certain  to  give  the  plants  a  backset  from 
which  they  seldom  fully  recover  before  the  second,  and 
sometimes  not  before  the  third  3'ear,  and  it  is  not  often 
in  the  arid  states  that  rain  falls  with  sufficient  fre- 
quency to  dispense  with  the  necessity  for  irrigating  the 
plants  while  small.  By  soaking  the  earth  from  thirty- 
six  to  forty-eight  hours  before  seeding,  however,  the 
plants  will  make  vigorous  growth  until  they  are  ten  to 
twelve  inches  high,  after  which  they  may  be  irrigated 
with  safety.  After  the  plants  are  up  and  show  well, 
the  first  trouble  will  be  the  growth  of  the  weeds, 
which  may,  if  left  alone,  almost  entirely  smother  the 
alfalfa.  As  soon  as  the  weeds  seem  to  be  getting  the 
start  of  the  alfalfa,  run  the  mower  over  the  ground, 
cutting  the  whole  growth  down  and  leaving  it  just 
where  it  fell  for  a  mulch,  and  if  nothing  happens  the 
alfalfa  will  show  up  first  and  will  make  its  next  growth 
very  quickly,  and  cover  the  ground  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  else.  The  writer  has  received  more  complaints  from 
friends  and  subscribers  in  the  east  regarding  the  weed 
nuisance  than  from  all  other  difficulties  combined,  and 
as  a  general  caution  we  would  advise  the  use  of  the 
mowing-machine,  with  the  sickle-bar  set  rather  high, 
whenever  the  weeds  seem  to  be  getting  the  better  of  the 


336  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

young  alfalfa.  This  will  improve  the  alfalfa  by 
making  it  more  stocky,  and  stooling  out  is  an  advantage 
at  this  time.  It  will  also  insure  more  certainty  against 
winter-killing,  and  will  be  found  advantageous  from 
every  point  of  view. 

After  alfalfa  has  become  established,  a  single 
copious  irrigation  after  each  cutting  will  ordinarily  be 
found  sufficient.  Irrigation  before  cutting  is  unde- 
sirable, because  it  leaves  the  earth  so  soft  as  to  inter- 
fere with  the  movement  of  machinery  and  loads.  It 
also  makes  the  stalks  more  sappy,  and  while  they  will 
retain  the  leaves  better  there  is  more  difficulty  to  be 
experienced  in  the  curing  at  harvest  time;  and  taken 
all  in  all,  we  much  prefer  to  irrigate  after  each  cutting. 
Here  in  Colorado  we  cut  alfalfa  three  times  and  often 
four  times  in  a  season,  hence  the  stand  gets  as  many 
irrigations.  Some  people  irrigate  very  early  in  spring- 
time, before  the  crowns  have  awakened  from  their 
hibernal  rest,  but  this  pra(5lice  is  not  right.  The  chill 
of  the  water  in  very  early  spring  is  not  conducive  to 
quick  growth  and  may  often  retard  the  plants  in 
getting  an  early  start.  We  do  not  irrigate  prior  to  the 
first  cutting  unless  the  season  is  particularly  dry  and 
the  plants  seem  to  adlually  demand  the  water.  We 
irrigate  late  in  the  fall  and  apply  a  top-dressing  of  light 
barnyard  manure,  which  is  found  to  be  of  great  service 
in  several  ways.  The  flooding  of  a  newly  cut  alfalfa 
field  is  shown  in  Fig.  69.   . 

Harvesting. — It  must  be  said  of  alfalfa  that  in 
cutting  it  for  hay  a  good  deal  of  skill  should  be  em- 
ployed by  the  husbandman,  or  the  results  may  be  dis- 
appointing.    Alfalfa  contains  six  per  cent,  less  water 


AI,!,  ABOUT  AI^FAI^FA.  337 

than  does  red  clover,  at  the  point  of  bloommg,  but  at 
the  same  time  it  seems  to  require  a  more  thorough  cur- 
ing process  to  fit  it  for  the  stack  or  mow.  The  knack 
to  be  acquired  is  that  of  curing  the  hay  suflSciently  to 
insure  it  keeping  sweet  in  the  stack  without  becoming 
so  dry  as  to  shed  its  leaves  in  the  handling.  This  can- 
not possibly  be  accomplished  by  curing  fully  in  the 
swath.  A  method  much  pradticed  is  to  rake  the  alfalfa 
while  still  quite  green  into  windrows,  where  it  is 
allowed  to  cure  somewhat  more,  and  finally  to  rake  it 
into  moderate-sized  cocks,  in  which  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  until  ready  for  the  stack.  This  process  makes 
verj^  nice  hay,  but  where  a  large  acreage  is  to  be  taken 
care  of  it  is  too  slow  and  expensive.  Alfalfa  may  be 
cured  in  the  windrow  with  entire  success,  but  it  is  im- 
portant when  cured  in  this  way  that  there  be  ample 
facilities  for  putting  it  into  stack  very  rapidly  when 
ready,  otherwise  it  will  become  too  dry  and  much  of  it 
will  be  lost  in  the  handling,  especially  if  it  has  to  be 
carried  from  the  fields  on  wagons.  Alfalfa  should  be 
cut  on  the  first  appearance  of  bloom.  The  old-fash- 
ioned "go-devil  "  is  now  made  in  the  way  of  an  im- 
proved table  rake,  and  the  ricker  which  supplements 
it  at  the  stack  forms  a  very  satisfac5lory  arrangement 
for  gathering  the  hay  crop.  By  means  of  these  rakes 
the  hay  is  taken  from  the  windrow  by  horse-power, 
and  conveyed  to  the  stacks  in  jags  weighing  two  hun- 
dred to  four  hundred  pounds,  where  it  is  delivered  to 
the  ricker,  and  by  the  latter  is  landed  into  the  middle 
of  the  stack.  The  only  hand-work  required  is  the 
distribution  of  the  hay  after  it  is  placed  upon  the  stack. 
Five  men  and  five  horses  with  two  rakes  and  the  ricker 


338  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

easily  put  thirty  tons  of  hay  a  day  into  stack,  at  a  cost 
of  about  thirty-five  cents  a  ton.  The  great  drawback 
to  these  rakes  is  that  they  can  be  used  to  advantage 
only  on  short  and  level  hauls.  The  process  of  this 
method  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  70. 

Colonel  Ivockhart,  a  leading  alfalfa  grower  of 
Fowler,  Colorado,  has  simplified  the  gathering  of  cut 
alfalfa  in  the  field  by  throwing  away  wagons,  "go- 
devils,"  and  all  contrivances  except  a  drag  arrange- 
ment of  his  own  invention.  This  is  composed  of  nine 
boards  of  Texas  pine  an  inch  thick,  six  inches  wide 
and  sixteen  feet  long.  These  are  placed  parallel,  leav- 
ing six  inches  of  space  between  each,  and  all  are  fas- 
tened across  the  ends  with  a  2  x  4  laid  flat  and  loosely 
bolted  to  the  boards.  To  this  is  hitched  a  team  of 
horses,  and  on  it  nearly  a  ton  of  hay  can  very  easily  be 
hauled  to  the  stack.  The  drag  is  hauled  alongside  a 
cock  of  hay.  Two  men  with  pitchforks  turn  over  the 
hay  onto  the  drag,  which  when  loaded  is  hauled  to  the 
stack  and  dumped  onto  the  sweep  which  carries  it  to 
the  top  of  the  stack.  The  drag  will  run  over  all  ditches 
and  obstacles,  and  is  the  best  thing  of  its  kind  yet 
devised. 

To  facilitate  the  work  of  harvesting  alfalfa,  it  is 
well  to  have  parallel  roads  thirty  rods  apart  running 
through  the  fields.  These  roads  may  be  protedled  from 
irrigating  waters  by  ditches  on  either  side,  so  that  the 
roadway  at  no  time  is  flooded.  This  arrangement 
allows  the  alfalfa  to  be  stacked  at  close  proximity,  and 
the  plan  will  be  found  very  convenient.  In  stacked 
alfalfa  more  or  less  combustion  takes  place,  and  it  is 
best  to  provide  ventilators,  which  may  be  of  headless 


340 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


FIG.  71- 


barrels  set  on  end  in  the  center  of  the  rick;  or  rails  and 
boards  may  be  employed,  a  very  good  plan  being  that 
depi<5led  in  Fig.  71. 

This  ventilator  is  made  of  two  i  x  3-inch  strips 
nailed  three  inches  apart  by  crosspieces,  so  as  to  form 
a  sort  of  open  box.  If  a  board  roof  is  not  desired,  the 
top  of  the  stack  may  be  anchored  with  fence  wire  cut 
in  suitable  lengths,  and  these  burdened  with  weights 

at  each  end,  so 
that  they  will  dan- 
gle at  the  sides  of 
the  stack.  These 
weights  are  to  pre- 
vent the  wind  from 
blowing  the  hay  to 
kingdom  come,  and 
are  just  the  thing 
for  the  rainless  region.  Stack  covers  with  brass  string- 
eyelets  are  also  good  weather  protec5lors,  and  will  pay 
in  the  long  run. 

The  Seed  Crop. — There  is  a  little  knack  in  taking 
alfalfa  seed  that  all  irrigation  farmers  should  understand. 
In  cutting  the  seed  do  not  let  it  stand  till  dead  ripe, 
as  one-third  will  rattle  off  and  waste.  Cut  when  the 
head  is  handsomely  brown  and  the  stalk  not  quite  dead. 
There  will  then  be  scarcely  any  waste  and  the  seed 
will  be  as  plump.  Many  people  in  gathering  alfalfa  seed 
waste  at  least  one-fourth  by  allowing  it  to  stand  too 
long  before  cutting.  Cut  with  a  mower  or  reaper — a 
mower  is  preferable.  Some  attach  a  drag  apron  and 
throw  off  in  bunches  of  medium  size  and  in  windrows. 
Do  not  handle  it  much  after  it  is  put  in  the  windrows, 


■VENTILATOR   FOR  ALFALFA 
STACK. 


ALIv  ABOUT  AI^FAIyFA.  34 1 

as  all  this  tends  to  rattle  the  seed  out  of  the  legumes, 
and  much  of  it  will  be  lost  in  this  way.  Stack  in  con- 
venient piles,  or  into  one  great  stack,  as  may  be 
preferred,  after  it  is  dried  thoroughly,  and  let  it  go 
through  the  sweat  at  least  three  weeks  before  thresh- 
ing. If  placed  in  large  stacks  care  should  be  taken  to 
put  in  stack  ventilators,  so  that  the  gases  will  escape 
without  danger  of  burning,  which  has  a  tendency  to 
injure  the  seed.  If  threshed  in  an  ordinary  machine 
all  the  teeth  on  the  cylinders  must  be  used,  and  it  often 
pays  to  run  it  through  twice.  An  alfalfa  huller  is  very 
necessary  to  get  the  best  results,  and  seventy-five 
bushels  is  a  big  day's  work.  Stock  will  generally  eat 
the  haulm  or  leavings.  The  first  crop  is  best  calcu- 
lated for  seed,  unless  perchance  it  be  too  rank,  when 
the  bolls  will  turn  brown  prematurely  and  the  seed 
itself  may  not  be  worth  saving.  Inserts  may  injure 
the  first  crop,  in  which  event  the  second  will  have  to 
be  depended  upon.  If  hay  is  hauled  from  the  field  on 
a  hay-rack  place  a  wagon  cover  at  the  bottom  to  catch 
all  the  loose  and  falling  seed.  We  usually  allow  the 
swaths  to  remain  from  three  to  five  days  before  hauling 
in  the  hay,  but  this  is  incident  upon  the  almost  constant 
days  of  sunshine  and  cloudless  skies  that  we  enjoy  here 
in  the  far  west.  Seed  alfalfa  must  never  be  raked,  and 
we  deprecate  even  placing  it  in  cocks.  The  less  hand- 
ling the  better,  in  avoiding  waste.  An  average  yield 
of  seed  is  all  the  way  from  eight  to  thirteen  bushels  to 
the  acre  when  grown  under  irrigation.  In  very  large 
areas  only  half  the  first  crop  may  be  reserved  for  seed, 
taking  the  other  half  from  the  second  stand.  When 
alfalfa  is  grown  for  seed  it  needs  but  very  little  irriga- 


342  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

tion,  probably  not  more  than  half  the  amount  that  is 
given  to  the  hay  crop. 

Fertilizing  Elements. — Plowing  under  green 
alfalfa  as  a  manurial  agent  and  soil  restorative  is  be- 
coming recognized  in  the  west  as  a  very  essential 
agency  in  preventing  soil  deterioration.  It  is  there- 
fore a  very  useful  plant  in  following  out  a  line  of  crop 
rotation.  As  a  green  manure  or  soil  renovator,  alfalfa 
is  hardly  equaled  by  any  other  plant.  It  is  very  rich 
in  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  lime,  and  gets  a  goodly 
portion  of  nitrogen  from  the  air,  leaving  much  of  this 
in  the  soil  by  means  of  its  large  roots  Aside  from 
this,  when  used  as  a  green  manure  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  humus  added  to  the  soil,  both  by  the  matter  turned 
under  and  by  the  roots.  The  large,  long  roots  open 
the  subsoil  to  a  great  depth,  serving  much  the  same 
purpose  as  the  subsoil  plow.  The  writer  once  saw  an 
alfalfa  root  at  Las  Vegas,  New  Mexico,  that  measured 
thirty-two  feet  in  length  and  had  been  secured  by  some 
laborers  while  digging  a  well  in  an  old  alfalfa  patch. 
When  once  well  rooted  a  stand  of  alfalfa  seems  as  im- 
pregnable as  the  gates  of  Hercules,  but  a  stout  and 
sharp  sward-plow  and  four  draft-horses  will  turn  down 
the  growth  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  acres  a  day  if 
properly  handled. 

The  extraordinary  demand  made  upon  available 
plant-food  in  the  soil  by  a  crop  of  alfalfa  is  something 
not  fully  comprehended  by  all  growers  of  the  great 
legume.  These  demands  are  especially  noticeable  in 
the  6ase  of  nitrogen  and  potash,  crops  often  colledling 
over  one-quarter  of  a  ton  of  each  from  an  acre  in  a 
season.     It  is  universally  admitted  that  the  mineral 


ALL   ABOUT  ALFALFA.  343 

constituents  of  plants,  such  as  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
Hme,  etc. ,  are  derived  solely  and  entirely  from  the  soil. 
In  the  case  of  nitrogen,  certain  leguminous  plants, 
such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  and  peas,  have  the  power  of 
assimilating  large  amounts  from  the  atmosphere  when 
sufficient  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  lime  are  pres- 
ent in  the  soil.  Therefore,  while  it  is  quite  possible 
that  alfalfa,  being  a  deep-rooting  plant,  could  secure 
nitrogen  from  the  soil,  the  probability  that  it  also 
secures  a  large  quantity  from  the  air  enhances  its 
value  as  an  agricultural  plant — firstly,  because  nitro- 
gen is  the  basis  of  the  compound  protein,  the  most 
valuable  part  of  the  food  produdl ;  and,  secondly,  be- 
cause nitrogen  is  the  most  costly  element  in  all  ferti- 
lizing compounds.  When  alfalfa  is  grown  and  its 
produdls  are  properly  utilized  upon  the  farm,  it  cannot 
be  considered  an  exhaustive  crop,  but  rather  as  one 
fulfilling  the  proper  aim  of  rational  agriculture,  which 
is  to  transform  into  produce  the  raw  materials  at  our 
disposal  in  the  atmosphere  and  soil.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  the  market  value  of  an  acre  of  turned- 
under  green  alfalfa  is  all  the  way  from  fifty  dollars  to 
eighty  dollars,  and  the  experiments  along  this  line 
have  been  very  carefully  made  by  scientific  gentlemen. 
Alfalfa  in  Rotation. — With  proper  rotation  with 
alfalfa  as  a  base,  land  can  be  farmed  indefinitely  with 
no  outlay  for  fertilizers  and  without  summer  fallowing. 
The  objedl  sought  in  rotation  is  to  produce  the  great- 
est possible  value  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  land 
in  good  condition.  A  farm  is  assumed  to  be  divided 
into  four  equal  plats  and  the  following  shows  the  crops 
to  be  raised  for  four  years  from  the  sod.     A  supply  of 


344  IRRIGATION   FARMING.  ^ 

early  and  late  water  is  assumed.  First  year — Plat  i , 
oats  ;  plat  2,  wheat ;  plat  3,  potatoes  or  corn  ;  plat  4, 
potatoes  or  corn.  Second  year — Plat  i,  oats,  seed  to 
alfalfa;  plat  2,  potatoes,  plow  deep;  plat  3,  wheat; 
plat  4,  wheat.  Third  year — Plat  i,  alfalfa;  plat  2, 
wheat;  plat  3,  wheat,  seed  to  alfalfa;  plat  4,  potatoes, 
plow  deep.  Fourth  year — Plat  i,  turn  under  alfalfa 
and  plant  to  potatoes  ;  plat  2,  wheat,  seed  to  alfalfa  ; 
plat  3,  alfalfa  ;  plat  4,  oats  or  wheat.  After  the  fourth 
year  raise  two  crops  of  potatoes  after  alfalfa. 

Wheat  may  follow  wheat  once.  Wheat  should 
never  follow  oats.  Oats  had  better  follow  wheat  than 
oats.  Alfalfa  should  be  seeded  in  the  spring  with 
wheat  or  oats  and  should  remain  two  years  after  the 
seeding  year.  Potatoes  should  follow  alfalfa  and  may 
follow  potatoes  once.  The  following  shows  another 
rotation  worked  out  on  this  plan,  with  the  exception 
that  alfalfa  does  not  always  remain  on  the  ground  two 
years  after  the  planting  :  First  year — Plat  i ,  wheat  ; 
plat  2,  wheat ;  plat  3,  oats  ;  plat  4,  oats  or  barley. 
Second  year — Plat  i,  wheat,  seed  to  alfalfa;  plat  2, 
potatoes,  plow  deep;  plat  3,  potatoes,  plow  deep  ;  plat 
4,  oats,  seed  to  alfalfa.  Third  year — Plat  i,  alfalfa  ; 
plat  2,  wheat,  seed  to  alfalfa;  plat  3,  potatoes  ;  plat  4, 
alfalfa.  Fourth  year — Plat  i,  potatoes;  plat  2,  alfalfa; 
plat  3,  wheat,  seed  to  alfalfa;  plat  4,  potatoes.  Fifth 
year — Plat  i,  potatoes;  plat  2,  potatoes  ;  plat  3,  alfalfa; 
plat  4,  wheat.  Sixth  year — Plat  i,  wheat,  seed  to 
alfalfa;  plat  2,  potatoes;  plat  3,  alfalfa;  plat  4,  wheat, 
seed  to  alfalfa.  Seventh  year — Plat  i,  alfalfa  ;  plat  2, 
wheat,  seed  to  alfalfa  ;  plat  3,  potatoes;  plat  4,  alfalfa. 
The  particular  plan  of  rotation  adopted  by  any  farmer 


ALI,   ABOUT   ALFAI^FA.  345 

will,  of  course,  depend  largely  upon  the  charadler  of 
the  water-supply. 

Feeding  Value. — Alfalfa  hay  is  forty-five  per  cent, 
better  than  clover,  and  sixty  per  cent,  better  than 
timothy.  To  secure  a  good  milk  ration  by  the  use  of 
timothy  hay,  protein  must  be  supplied  from  some  other 
source,  in  order  to  secure  a  ration  that  will  give  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  that  material  without  entailing  a  loss 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat ;  clover  hay,  however,  is  a 
fairly  good  ration  in  itself,  and  can  be  economically 
used  without  the  addition  of  any  other  compounds  ; 
alfalfa  hay,  on  the  other  hand,  requires  the  addition  of 
large  amounts  of  both  fat  and  carbohydrates  in  order 
to  be  profitably  utilized  as  a  milk  ration.  This  fa(5l 
renders  alfalfa  more  serviceable  than  its  valuation 
would  indicate,  since,  in  the  management  of  farms 
either  for  dairy  purposes  or  for  grain  farming,  an  ex- 
cess of  carbohydrates  is  secured,  which  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  is  wasted.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
two  and  a  half  pounds  of  protein,  four- tenths  of  a 
pound  of  fat,  and  twelve  and  a  half  pounds  of  carbo- 
hydrates can  be  profitably  fed  daily  to  a  cow  of  one 
thousand  pounds  live  weight.  One  ton  of  alfalfa  hay, 
containing  35.3  pounds  of  digestible  fat,  280.1  pounds 
of  digestible  protein,  and  770.7  pounds  of  digestible 
carbohydrates  would  furnish  sufiicient  protein  for  one 
hundred  and  twelve  days,  fat  for  eighty-eight  days, 
and  carbohydrates  for  sixty-one.  Therefore,  in  order 
to  feed  this  amount  of  alfalfa  economically  and  profit- 
ably, fat  sufficient  for  twenty-four  days  and  carbo- 
hydrates for  fifty-one  days  must  be  added  from  some 
other  source,  such  as  cornstalks,  green  fodder  corn,  or 


346  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

ensilage,  wheat  straw,  oat  straw,  root  crops,  etc.  Two 
tons  of  a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of  field  cornstalks 
and  alfalfa  would  furnish  food  sufficient  for  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six  days,  without  noticeable  loss  of 
any  of  the  digestible  compounds.  Four  tons  of  a  mix- 
ture composed  of  one  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  and  three  tons 
of  corn  ensilage,  or  green  fodder  com,  would  furnish 
food  sufficient  for  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  days 
without  any  appreciable  loss.  Alfalfa,  therefore,  fur- 
nishes a  feeding  material  rich  in  protein,  which  can 
be  substituted  for  such  waste  produ<5ls  as  wheat  bran, 
cotton-seed  meal,  etc.,  usually  bought  in  order  to  profit- 
ably utilize  the  excess  of  carbohydrates. 

There  is  no  way  in  which  more  net  profit  may  be 
secured  from  an  acre  of  good  alfalfa  than  by  pasturing 
young  hogs  upon  it.  One  acre  should  sustain  ten  to 
fifteen  hogs  from  spring  to  fall.  If  they  weigh  a 
hundred  pounds  each  when  put  on  the  alfalfa,  they 
should  make  another  hundred  pounds.  One  thousand 
pounds  at  five  cents  is  fifty  dollars,  and  there  is  no  ex- 
pense to  be  deducted.  Six  hundred  pounds  of  pork 
from  an  acre  of  corn  would  be  a  good  yield,  and  then 
the  expense  of  cultivating  and  harvesting  and  feeding 
would  make  a  big  hole  in  the  net  profit.  Pork  making 
from  alfalfa  is  one  good  road  to  success.  Alfalfa  hay 
is  used  largely  in  fattening  sheep  and  lambs  which  get 
no  other  ration.  Fowls  eat  it  greedily,  and  it  can  be 
relied  upon  the  same  as  green  food,  by  steaming  the 
hay.     Horses  can  live  on  alfalfa  the  year  around. 

Diseases  and  Enemies. — Some  of  the  alfalfa 
fields  of  a  humid  climate  are  affe(5ted  with  root  rot, 
which  causes  the  alfalfa  to  die  in  almost  perfedl  circles 


ALIy   ABOUT   AI^FALFA.  347 

during  June.  Cool  weather  checks  the  dying  until  the 
next  June,  when  a  ring  of  alfalfa  dies  on  the  margin 
of  the  circle.  Its  annual  spreading  indicates  a  fungous 
trouble.  The  disease  spreads  slowly,  about  fifty  feet 
each  year,  and  its  advance  is  not  stopped  by  plowing 
around  the  diseased  spots.  Hence  the  fungus  must 
attack  the  healthy  plants  for  some  time  before  there 
are  any  visible  signs  of  disease.  The  disease  attacks 
the  crown  and  upper  portion  of  the  root,  no  fungus 
being  found  below  sixteen  inches  from  the  surface. 
The  fungus  is  identical  with  the  cotton-root  rot.  Salt, 
kerosene,  and  other  remedies  have  been  found  to  be 
partially  effedlive,  but  no  sure  cure  or  preventive  has 
yet  been  found. 

In  other  humid  climates  some  farmers  have  found 
that  the  plant  is  affedled  with  leaf  spot.  This  disease 
is  found  in  nearly  every  place  where  alfalfa  is  grown 
in  the  moist  Atlantic  states.  Usually  it  does  not  attack 
the  plant  until  the  second  year's  growth,  when  the 
plant  is  able  to  survive  the  disease.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  completely  destroys  seedling  plants.  The 
disease  shows  itself  as  minute  dark-brown  spots  of 
irregular  shape  upon  the  green  or  discolored  leaflet. 
The  center  of  each  spot  forms  a  pustule.  In  this  are 
developed  the  spores,  which  are  set  free  by  the  break- 
ing of  the  epidermis.  The  disease  readily  survives  the 
winter,  and  may  develop  year  after  year  in  the  same 
field.  In  serious  cases,  covering  with  straw  and  burn- 
ing will  stop  the  disease.  It  may  be  held  in  check  by 
frequent  cuttings. 

Dodder  is  an  enemy  that  has  given  alfalfa  more  or 
less  trouble  out  west.     It  is  a  small  annual  parasitic 


348  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

plant  with  yellow  or  reddish-yellow  twining  stems, 
which  wind  themselves  around  the  stems  of  alfalfa, 
clover,  or  similar  plants,  near  the  ground,  taking  its 
nourishment  from  its  host.  It  has  small,  colorless, 
scale-like  leaves,  and  produces  clusters  of  ten  or  more 
flowers,  each  of  which  contains  four  small  grayish  seeds 
which  are  about  half  the  size  of  the  alfalfa  seed. 
These  fall  to  the  ground,  where  they  remain  until  the 
next  season,  when  they  germinate.  The  young  dod- 
der plant  cannot  live  long  in  the  ground,  and  unless  it 
finds  a  host  plant,  soon  dies.  Where  it  is  abundant 
the  plants  upon  which  it  feeds  assume  an  unhealthy 
appearance,  and  finally  die.  Dodder  can  be  killed  by 
cutting  the  hay  before  the  dodder  blossoms,  or  by 
burning  it,  or  by  plowing  the  crop  under  and  cultivat- 
ing the  land  for  a  year  or  two  in  corn,  potatoes,  or 
other  plants  which  have  stems  so  large  that  dodder 
does  not  live  upon  them.  The  plant  itself  is  an  annual, 
and  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  go  to  seed  it  will  die  of  its 
own  accord.  To  keep  it  from  seeding,  then,  is  impor- 
tant, and  this  can  be  done  by  running  the  mowing 
machine  when  the  alfalfa  is  half  grown,  and  allowing 
the  hay  to  wilt  on  the  ground,  or  it  may  be  raked  off, 
as  desired. 

The  workings  of  this  pestiferous  parasite  are  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  73,  reproduced  from  the  American  Agri- 
culturist. From  the  seed  (^)  a  vine  grows  and  clings 
to  the  alfalfa  stem  (^)  by  the  sucking  root  (f),  through 
which  the  dodder  thereafter  feeds  upon  the  alfalfa  sap, 
the  ground  roots  dying  and  the  vine  turning  yellow. 
The  slight  purplish  flowers  {d)  are  borne  in  clusters 
(a) .     The  small  dodder  seed  (^)  can  be  removed  by  a 


AI.I,  ABOUT  AI^FAlvFA. 


349 


sieve  with  twenty  meshes  to  the  inch.     The  vine  can 
be  killed  by  a  copperas  or  sulphate  of  iron  solution. 

Another  enemy  is  the  alfalfa  worm,  which  a(5ls 
much  like  the  army  worm  in  destroying  leaf,  stem,  and 
branch.  The  midge  also  burrows  into  the  seed  bolls 
and  works  great  havoc,   and  a  clover-blossom  worm 


FIG.  73 — DODDER    SEED,    FLOWER,    AND    PLANT. 


finds  its  way  into  alfalfa  and  works  some  in j  ury .  Flood- 
ing an  affedled  field  with  water  will  usually  do  away 
with  the  worms. 

Hoove  or  Bloat. — The  only  objedlion  which  has 
been  raised  against  alfalfa  as  a  forage  plant  is  its  ten- 
dency to  cause  bloat  in  ruminating  animals.  In  its 
component  parts  there  is  nothing  in  alfalfa  which  would 
necessarily  create  hoove,  and  the  only  way  by  which  it 
occurs  is  when  the  animal  eats  too  greedily  and  over- 
gorges  itself  by  taking  in  greater  quantities  than  it  can 
digest,  when  gas  accumulates  and  tympany  of  the  first 
stomach  is  the  inevitable  result.  It  is  held  that  alfalfa 
grown  without  irrigation  will  not  cause  bloat.  Neither 
will  esparcet,  which  is  a  plant  similar  to  alfalfa.     A 


350 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


^ 


iil^ 


« 


number  of  preventives  have  been  introduced  to  alleviate 
the  sufferings  of  an  animal  with  the  hoove,  but  the 
trocar  is  the  surest  alternative  and  is  usually  applied  as 
a  last  resort.  Fig.  74  shows  how  the  instrument  may 
be  used. 

The  veterinarians  have  a  rule  for  inserting  the  tro- 
car.    They  span  with  outstretched  thumb  and  middle 

finger  for  a  point  at  right 
angles  with  the  chine  and 
hip  joint  on  the  left  side, 
\\|  plunging  the  trocar  in  a 
I  downward  and  inward  di- 
/  reClion  fully  six  inches, 
/  when  it  should  tap  the 
y  I  stomach  and  allow  the  gas 
\U  to  escape.  By  planting 
\  jl  the  trocar  at  a  point  equi- 
\  \  distant  from  the  hip  bone, 
\  \  the  last  rib  and  the  lateral 
-M"  process,  many  a  valuable 
"^~  animal  has  been  saved 
when  other  expedients 
have  failed.  The  hollow 
probang  passed  into  the  stomach  might  give  relief,  so 
might  a  drench  of  a  tablespoonful  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  or  a  rowel  in  the  mouth  ;  but  when  these  fail 
resort  to  the  trocar  and  cannula,  and  the  suffering 
ruminant  is  saved. 

The  Alfalfa  Sandwich. — As  a  means  of  utilizing 
the  straw  on  the  farm  to  best  advantage,  the  plan  of 
mixing  it  with  alfalfa  is  to  be  commended.  There  is 
great  merit  in  the  mixture  of  green  alfalfa  and  dry 


FIG.  74 — TROCAR  USED  FOR 
BLOAT. 


ALL  ABOUT  ALFALFA.  351 

Straw  for  cattle  or  horse  feeding,  and  those  who  have 
given  it  trial  say  that  the  combination  of  two  parts  of 
alfalfa  to  one  of  straw  in  alternating  layers  makes  as 
valuable  fodder,  pound  for  pound,  as  does  alfalfa 
alone.  By  this  method  the  worthless  straw  stack  may 
be  converted  into  valuable  feed  and  manure,  and  re- 
turned to  the  soil  that  produced  it.  The  variety  of 
straw  used  is  of  little  consequence,  as  wheat,  oats,  or 
barley  are  one  and  the  same  apparently  after  having 
absorbed  the  juices  and  substance  of  the  alfalfa.  Cat- 
tle will  devour  every  particle  of  the  sandwich,  allowing 
none  to  go  to  waste,  and  some  farmers  contend  that 
the  feed  is  improved  by  the  addition  of  straw.  One 
advantage  in  this  system  lies  in  the  fadl  that  the  alfalfa 
can  be  put  into  stack  while  almost  green  and  the  straw 
will  serve  to  cure  it  by  absorbing  its  juices  and  color. 
This  plan  might  be  called  the  dry  silo,  and  when  prop- 
erly put  up  forms  a  most  valuable  forage. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
WINDMILLS  AND  PUMPS. 


1^    EVICES   almost  innumerable   are  being  tested 
j"^i      and   employed   for  placing  water   on  land, 
^^1    where  canals  cannot  be  utilized  or  are  inade- 
quate.    Wind  and  water  power  are  of  course 
the  cheapest  forces  for  this  purpose,  where  they  can 
be  relied  upon.     Hence  the  marked  improvement  in 
windmills  and  water-wheels. 

Pumping  water  for  irrigation  has  now  become  so 
common  that  the  demand  for  the  various  kinds  of 
pumps  during  the  past  few  years  has  increased  very 
materially.  About  ten  years  ago  it  was  almost  impos- 
sible to  purchase  a  really  serviceable  pump  for  irri"ga- 
tion  purposes.  Such  as  were  then  found  in  the  market 
were  designed  for  water- works  plants.  Of  these  per- 
haps the  most  efficient  was  the  Holly  system.  These 
installations  were  strong,  durable,  and  costly,  and 
could  raise  water  to  the  hight  of  300  feet  with  appar- 
ent ease  ;  but  for  every  1,000  gallons  pumped  the  cost 
was  from  two  to  four  cents,  and  if  used  to  irrigate  the 
soil  the  cost  would  be  from  $10  to  $24  an  acre  annu- 
ally. It  is  needless  to  add  that  machinery  of  this 
character  is  entirely  out  of  place  in  the  arid  region. 

The  first  outlay  has  to  be  small,  hence  western 
irrigators  and  those  who  design  the  machinery  for  the 
west  have  been  studying  how  they  can  raise  a  given 
352 


WINDMILLS    AND    PUMPS.  353 

quantity  of  water  and  deliver  it  on  the  surface  in  the 
simplest,  cheapest,  and  most  efficient  way.  To  better 
accomplish  this  task,  the  records  of  all  ages  in  the 
ancient  art  of  irrigation  have  been  gleaned  afresh  for 
new  ideas  of  things  that  are  old.  Not  content  with 
modern  mechanism  and  with  the  steam-engine  of  our 
day,  they  have  gone  back  to  the  more  simple  contriv- 
ances of  an  earlier  period.  The  old  water-wheel,  with 
its  skin  buckets,  rough  pin  gearing  and  long  sweep, 
propelled  by  oxen,  has  been  modernized.  Pharaoh 
himself,  if  alive  again,  would  admit  that  western  irri- 
gators have  made  great  improvements  on  the  old  water- 
wheels  of  his  realm. 

Draft-horses  have  replaced  the  Egyptian  oxen,  and 
well-designed  steel  buckets  attached  to  a  revolving 
chain  have  reduced  the  fri(5lion  of  the  roughly  made 
wooden  gearing.  The  old-fashioned  Dutch  windmills, 
which  our  grandfathers  considered  veritable  Eiffel 
towers  and  which  still  dot  the  landscape  of  New  Eng- 
land, only  interest  the  artist  now.  The  genius  of  the 
American  machinist  and  engineer  have  made  the  skel- 
eton of  the  modern  wind-engine  to  appear  like  reeds, 
yet  as  strong  as  steel,  and  the  twenty-foot  wheels  are 
as  readily  adjusted  as  an  eagle's  wing.  The  Hfting 
capacity  of  the  windmills  is  of  necessity  small,  but 
when  one  considers  the  tens  of  thousands  in  use,  and 
the  small  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance,  the  work 
they  perform  is  enormous.  A  mill  having  a  ten-foot 
wheel  and  exposed  to  a  wind  of  ten  miles  an  hour  will 
produce  one-eighth  of  a  horse-power,  while  a  twenty - 
two  foot  wheel  in  the  same  wind  would  produce  one 
horse-power.     In  other  words,  if  there  was  no  loss  by 


354  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

fri<5lion,  leakage,  etc. ,  a  twenty-two  foot  wheel  would 
raise  200  gallons  from  a  well  ten  feet  deep,  which,  if 
kept  running  continuously  at  that  speed,  would  irri- 
gate, with  the  aid  of  a  reservoir,  about  twenty-five 
acres  of  land. 

Presuming  that  all  the  low  lands  along  the  valleys 
can  be  irrigated  by  the  use  of  canals,  the  question  of 
upland  irrigation  becomes  one  of  great  importance. 
Admitting  that  the  water-supply  is  sufficient  for  the 
apparatus  in  use,  we  will  suppose  that  a  farmer  desires 
to  irrigate  five  acres  of  land,  with  a  possibility  of  ten, 
from  a  one  hundred  foot  well.  To  assure  success  for 
the  larger  amount  of  land  not  less  than  a  fourteen-foot 
windmill  should  be  purchased.  A  sixteen-foot  would 
be  better.  With  either  of  these  sizes,  and  a  storage 
reservoir,  it  will  not  be  best  to  guarantee  that  over 
eight  acres  can  be  irrigated,  although  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  with  the  proper  use  of  the  water — keeping 
the  mills  constantly  in  use,  wetting  down  the  land  and 
completely  saturating  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  six  feet 
or  more,  and  carefully  utilizing  all  sources  of  supply — 
ten  acres  can  be  irrigated  from  this  depth  by  mills  of 
either  of  these  sizes  ;  but  only  by  the  best  of  manage- 
ment, favorable  conditions  and  great  care  in  the  hand- 
ling and  distribution  of  the  water,  will  a  fourteen- foot 
mill  irrigate  the  last  amount  given.  In  any  event,  a 
storage  reservoir  at  the  well  is  quite  essential,  and  by 
its  presence  it  is  safe  to  say  that  all  the  way  from  fif- 
teen to  forty  acres  may  be  irrigated,  by  employing 
various  mills  that  may  raise  water  at  any  distance 
from  ten  to  one  hundred  feet. 

It  is  best,  in  arranging  to  put  in  a  windmill  plant, 


WINDMILLS   AND   PUMPS. 


355 


to  place  it  on  the  highest  advantageous  point  on  the 
farm,  for  the  twofold  purpose  of  commanding  every 
passing  breeze  and  of  carrying  the  water  that  has  been 
raised  to  its  final  destination  by  the  gravity  process. 


FIG.   75 — AN    IDEAL   WINDMILL   AND    RESERVOIR    PLANT. 

There  are  so  many  methods  of  raising  water  by  pumps 
that  the  writer  despairs  of  fully  covering  all  of  them, 
and  must  only  be  expedled  to  touch  upon  a  few  of  the 
most  practical  ones  now  in  use.  An  ideal  reservoir 
and  wind-engine  pumping  plant  is  shown  in  Fig.  75, 
and  a  windmill  plant  in  operation  in  Fig.  76. 


356  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Buying  a  Windmill. — In  seleding  a  windmill 
the  first  point  to  look  at  is  the  age  and  standing  of 
the  firm  making  the  article.  There  is  no  class  of  ma- 
chinery that  should  be  investigated  with  more  care 
than  a  windmill.  Examine  the  machine  offered  and 
see  that  it  is  well  built.  See  that  the  ironwork  is 
heavy  and  substantial,  the  wheel  well  braced,  the 
journals  well  babitted,  the  fans  securely  fastened  to 
the  arms,  and  that  the  vane  or  tail  is  supported  by 
means  of  a  truss  brace.  In  fa<5l,  see  that  it  is  not  a  sham, 
made  to  sell  and  not  to  work.  It  must  be  safe  to 
stand  through  the  heaviest  storm.  Its  strength  and 
apparent  constru(5lion  for  durability  should  be  the 
standard  of  its  worth.  The  lowest  machine  in  price  is 
not  often  the  cheapest  machine  to  buy. 

A  first-class  windmill  should,  with  a  fair  amount  of 
care,  do  good  service  for  twenty  to  twenty-five  years 
with  a  very  small  amount  of  expense  for  repairs.  Some 
of  the  oldest  manufadlurers  can  refer  to  their  work  that 
has  been  in  constant  service  for  a  longer  time  than  that 
mentioned.  Remember  that  the  tower,  pump,  tank, 
etc.,  that  go  to  make  up  a  complete  outfit,  all  cost  as 
much  for  a  poor,  unreliable  mill  as  for  a  good  one.  A 
modern  idea  is  to  have  an  all-steel  plant,  and  this  is  quite 
an  item  for  the  consideration  of  those  living  in  the  arid 
regions,  where  the  climate  is  exceedingly  severe  on  all 
woodwork.  Be  sure  to  get  a  mill  strong  enough  to  do 
the  heaviest  work  in  a  light  wind,  and  do  not  expedl 
a  ten-foot  wheel  to  do  the  work  of  a  fourteen-foot 
wheel. 

There  are  innumerable  designs  in  patented  wind- 
mills, and  the  buyer  will  have  to  use  his  best  judgment 


358  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

in  sele<5ling  one  best  adapted  to  his  peculiar  purpose. 
Of  side-vane  governor  mills,  the  Corcoran  and  Eclipse 
are  excellent  examples.  Of  centrifugal  kinds  the  Hal- 
liday  and  Althouse  are  good  examples,  the  latter  being 
folding  and  rudderless.  The  Buchanan  is  a  good  ex- 
ample of  a  special  form  of  wheel  dependent  for  its 
regulation  on  the  tendency  of  the  wheel  to  follow  in 
the  direc5lion  it  turns  as  the  velocity  and  wind-pressure 
increase.  The  Stover  mill  has  a  solid  sail-wheel,  with 
vanes  so  regulated  that  it  may  be  reefed,  stopped,  or 
otherwise  controlled  to  go  slowly  in  heavy  winds.  The 
Perkins  mill  has  a  solid  wheel  with  metal  vanes,  and 
an  automatic  rudder,  which  also  a<5ls  as  a  self-regula- 
tor. This,  like  many  of  the  more  recent  mills  with 
metal  vanes,  as  the  Aermotor,  Dempster,  Currie,  Gem, 
Crane,  and  Ideal,  is  back-geared.  The  Aermotor  is 
one  of  the  most  popular  of  this  class  of  modern  wind- 
mills with  steel  vanes.  The  Leffel  windmill  has  metal 
vanes  made  on  a  helical  curve,  and  depends  for  regula- 
tion on  the  facfl  that  the  center  line  of  the  wheel-shaft 
stands  off  from  and  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  rudder. 
Others  of  the  modern  type  of  metal- vane  wheels  are 
the  Cyclone  and  the  Woodmanse.  The  Advance  is  of 
the  automatic-regulating  rudder  type,  and  has  both 
steering  vane  and  governing  rudder.  The  Carlyle  is  a 
special  type,  having  a  rudder  arranged  to  reef  the  sail 
in  storms,  and  so  attached  by  an  adjustable  cam  as  to 
cause  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  rudder  to  rise  as  it 
falls  toward  the  wheel.  The  Dempster  also  has  a  vane- 
less  wheel  for  the  use  of  large  ranchmen  in  the  open 
country. 

Erecting  Windmills. — One  thing  of  importance 


WINDMILLS   AND   PUMPS.  359 

in  this  connedlion  is  to  elevate  the  tower  sufficiently 
high  to  place  the  lower  curve  of  the  wheel  at  least  ten 
feet  above  all  obstruc5tions,  such  as  trees,  buildings, 
hills,  etc. ,  that  the  mill  may  have  a  free  current  of  air 
from  all  dire(5lions.  Mistakes  are  often  made  in  plac- 
ing mills  too  low,  so  that  the  wheel  is  below  the  ridge 
of  barns  or  tops  of  trees  near  by.  This  not  only  pre- 
vents the  mill  from  receiving  the  full  force  of  the  wind, 
but  subjedls  it  to  varying  currents  that  tend  to  toss  the 
mill  about  from  one  point  to  another  and  prevent  it 
from  doing  the  work  properly — and  in  strong  winds 
the  effect  is  sometimes  damaging.  It  is  better  economy 
to  eredl  a  mill  too  high  than  too  low,  as  frequently  the 
upper  current  of  air  is  moving  sufficiently  to  run  a 
mill  while  it  would  not  run  in  the  lower  current. 
Again,  the  upper  current  is  more  steady  at  all  times, 
and  will  run  a  mill  at  more  uniform  speed,  with  less 
strain,  and  with  greater  satisfadlion  to  all  concerned — 
a  little  extra  material  for  the  tower  in  the  start  should 
not  be  taken  into  consideration  if  it  is  to  effect  the  work- 
ings and  safety  of  the  mill  for  years  to  come.  The 
most  important  point  of  a  windmill  tower  is  the  anchor- 
age. Probably  the  best  way  is  to  dig  holes  four  feet 
deep,  and  fill  them  with  stone  laid  in  water- lime  or 
cement;  in  this  is  embedded,  to  serve  as  an  anchorage, 
a  two-inch  bar  of  iron,  with  one  end  flattened  and 
holes  punched  in  it  for  the  tower-bolts.  If  it  is  not 
convenient,  posts  may  be  used  with  pieces  spiked  across 
the  bottom  for  anchors  ;  this  is  the  method  generally 
employed.  Wooden  towers  should  be  well  painted 
every  five  years.  It  is  not  well  to  enclose  a  tower  with 
siding.     It  offers  a  greater  grasp  for  the  wind  and  adds 


360  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

but  little  strength.  It  is  well,  however,  to  enclose  the 
lower  secftions  to  form  a  pump-house.  This  adds 
greatly  to  the  strength  and  appearance. 

Such  is  the  popularity  of  the  steel  wheel  that  where- 
ever  it  has  been  introduced  it  has  driven  the  wooden 
wheel  out  of  the  field.  The  modern  steel  tower  stands 
straight,  stiff,  and  supreme.  It  is  twice  as  strong, 
weighs  only  one-third  as  much,  and  j  resents  less  than 
one-sixth  the  surface  of  a  wooden  tower  to  the  sweep 
of  a  storm.  It  will  not  decay,  and  when  galvanized  is 
proof  against  rust.  Nothing  short  of  a  tornado  or 
cyclone  can  blow  it  over.  The  steel  wheel  is  in  keep- 
ing with  its  tower.  The  fans  being  made  of  steel  and 
bent  into  curved  shapes,  produce  more  power  by  far 
than  a  straight  wooden  slat.  This  being  the  case, 
smaller  wheels  may  be  used  than  if  made  of  wood,  for 
the  same  amount  of  work.  The  wheel  being  geared 
so  as  to  require  three  revolutions  to  make  one  stroke 
of  the  pump  also  increases  the  power.  Back-gearing 
enables  the  wheel  to  run  at  a  natural  and  a  more  rapid 
rate  of  speed. 

It  is  well  known  that  more  power  can  be  derived 
from  a  fast-running  wheel  of  any  description  than  from 
a  slow  one.  Economy  in  buying  is  extravagance  in 
using.  In  raising  a  tower  it  is  best  to  employ  some  one 
who  has  had  experience  in  that  line.  Have  four  hun- 
dred or  five  hundred  feet  of  rope,  double  tackle-blocks, 
besides  poles  for  shores  to  raise  it  high  enough  for  the 
blocks  to  take  hold,  and  guy-ropes  to  steady  it  until 
fastened  to  posts.  Have  the  posts  set,  and  if  on  a  steel 
outfit  be  sure  that  they  are  perfedlly  level  or  the  mill 
will  not  be  plumb.     Steel  towers  must  be  raised  with 


WINDMILLS   AND    PUMPS.  36 1 

the  main  castings  attached,  and  the  wheel  and  vane  put 
on  afterward,  although  they  may  be  put  on  before 
raising  if  there  is  sufficient  help.  In  wooden  towers 
the  frames  should  be  raised  alone  and  the  castings 
hoisted  into  place  by  means  of  a  gin  pole  and  ropes. 
Also  be  sure  that  the  tower  is  level  before  fastening  to 
posts.  Care  must  be  taken  in  setting  the  posts,  that 
they  are  exacftly  the  right  distance  apart.  Where  tanks 
are  desired,  it  is  best  to  buy  them  from  regular  deal- 
ers who  also  furnish  instru<5lions  for  putting  them  up. 

Care  of  Windmills. — A  windmill  in  daily  use 
should  be  oiled  at  least  every  two  weeks.  This,  in  icy 
weather,  is  no  desirable  task.  Several  methods  have 
been  introduced  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  Large 
storage  cups  are  used  by  some.  One  or  two  firms  use 
what  is  called  a  tilting  tower.  This  tower  supports  a 
mast  pivoted  in  the  center.  On  one  end  of  this  mast 
is  placed  the  wheel,  while  the  other  end  is  weighted  to 
the  weight  of  the  wheel.  When  oiling  is  needed  the 
foot  of  the  mast  is  unlocked  and  the  wheel  drawn  to 
the  ground.  The  latest  plan  introduced  to  overcome 
the  necessity  of  oiling  is  to  have  all  bearing  parts 
made  of  graphite,  which  is  a  composition  of  brass  and 
black  lead,  the  latter  in  itself  a  great  lubricator.  The 
makers  of  these  bearings  claim  that  they  will  last  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  years.  All  bolt  work  on  a  frame 
and  about  the  gearing  should  be  carefully  watched, 
and  where  joints  become  loosened  they  should  be  tight- 
ened promptly,  as  in  this  way  serious  loss  may  of  ten  be 
averted. 

Power  of  Wind  Engines. — The  velocity  of  the 
wind  and  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  determines  the 


362  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

power.  An  eight-mile  velocity  of  wind  an  hour  gives 
a  force  equal  to  one- third  pound  to  a  square  foot,  and 
a  fifteen -mile  wind  gives  a  force  of  one  pound  to  a 
square  foot;  a  twenty-mile  wind  gives  a  force  of  two 
pounds  to  a  square  foot,  and  a  twenty-five-mile  wind 
gives  three  pounds,  while  a  thirty-mile  wind  gives  a 
force  of  about  four  and  one-half  pounds  to  a  square 
foot  of  wheel  surface.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
force  of  the  wind  increases  or  decreases  in  the  ratios  of 
the  squares  of  the  velocities.  A  fifteen-mile  wind  gives 
a  force  a  little  more  than  three  times  as  great  as  an 
eight-mile  wind,  and  just  twice  as  great  as  a  ten-mile 
wind,  while  a  twenty-mile  wind  is  nearly  twice  as  g^eat 
as  a  fifteen-mile  wind.  The  mean  average  velocity  of 
the  wind  throughout  the  United  States  is  a  little  less 
than  eight  miles  an  hour.  In  certain  sedlions,  as  along 
the  sea-coast  and  throughout  the  plains  and  table-lands, 
the  velocity  is  much  greater,  while  in  other  secftions  it 
is  less  than  the  general  average.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  safe 
to  figure  on  eight  to  ten  hours'  work  out  of  the  twenty- 
four  for  the  windmill,  when  the  wind  velocity  will  be 
eight  to  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  At  certain  seasons,  and 
again  in  some  localities,  the  velocity  will  equal  fifteen 
to  twenty  miles  an  hour  for  eight  to  twelve  hours  or 
more  out  of  the  twenty-four. 

.  Pumping  windmills  of  the  solid  wheel  type  are 
usually  adjusted  by  regulating  their  governor,  so  as  to 
govern  when  the  velocity  of  the  wind  reaches  fifteen 
miles  an  hour.  This  is  to  avoid  injury  to  the  pump 
by  preventing  too  rapid  acflion  of  the  pump  valves. 
Back-geared  mills  are  an  exception  to  this  rule,  being 
geared  back  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  number  of 


WINDMILLS  AND   PUMPS.  363 

Strokes  of  the  pump  in  proportion  to  the  revolutions  of 
the  wheel,  so  as  to  utilize  the  greater  force  of  the  wind 
obtained  by  higher  velocity  than  fifteen  miles,  and  are 
adjusted  to  govern  at  a  considerable  higher  velocity 
than  ungeared  mills. 

Twenty-seven  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty-four 
gallons  of  water  will  cover  an  acre  one  inch  in  depth. 
One  horse-power,  with  good  machinery,  will  raise  this 
amount  of  water  one  foot  high  in  ten  minutes;  or  ten 
horse-power  will  raise  it  in  one  minute.  One  horse- 
power would  put  one  inch  of  water  on  one  acre,  elevated 
twenty-five  feet  above  the  source,  in  four  and  one-sixth 
hours.  Ten  horse-power  would  do  the  same  for  ten 
acres.  Now  from  this  we  get  the  rule  that,  for  one 
inch  of  water  on  one  acre  of  land,  we  must  figure  one 
horse-power  for  ten  minutes  for  each  foot  in  hight  the 
water  must  be  raised.  It  may  be  more  explicit  to  add 
that  one  horse-power  is  defined  as  the  combined  pulling 
strength  of  four  ordinary  horses.  In  theory  a  horse- 
power is  equal  to  33,000  pounds  lifted  one  foot  high  in 
one  minute  of  time. 

Capacity  of  Windmills  and  Reservoirs. — The 
only  question  with  people  in  general  adopting  wind- 
mill irrigation  is  one  of  proper  storage  and  handling  of 
the  water.  The  double  reservoir  system  will  be  neces- 
sary. The  figures  given  for  sizes  of  reservoirs  are  for 
holding  the  water  for  twenty- four  hours  continuous 
pumping;  but  larger  reservoirs  should  be  made  of  from 
one  to  two  acres  in  extent,  carrying  from  8  to  10  feet 
of  water. 

Extra  reservoir  required  to  reserve  overflow  after 
twenty-four  hours'  pumping  should  be  of  one  and  two 


364 


IRRIGATION    FARMING. 


a. 8 


>5  ;q 


3,660 
2,580 
1,320 
7,500 
6,300 
2,700 
1,320 
10,620 
7.260 
4,620 
2,940 
1,680 
1,700 


87,840 
61,920 
31,680 
180,000 
151,200 
64,800 
31,680 
254,880 
174,240 
100,880 
71,560 
40,320 
47,680 


;^s-«e  %.  s  'J 


1U3  acres 
86  acres 
37  acres 
18  acres 
146  acres 
100  acres 
6S  acres 
40  acres 
23  acres 
25  acres 


to 


90  by  75  feet 
90  by  60  feet 
60  by  40  feet 
50  by  30  feet 
125  byTBO  feet 
90  by  75  feet 
75  by  50  feet 
65  by  40  feet 
50  by  30  feet 
50  by  35  feet 


acre  sizes,  holding  from  8  to  16  acre  feet  of  water. 
I^arge  reservoirs  of  one  and  two  acre  sizes,  8  feet  deep; 
banks  9  feet  high,  base  45  feet.  A  square  acre  is  209 
feet  on  each  side.  A  two-acre  reservoir  would  be 
209  X418  feet. 

The  Wind  Rustler. — A  queer  arid  simple  con- 
trivance this,  and  quite  common  in  Western  Kansas. 
One  of  these  odd  arrangements  to  attradl  the  curiosity 
of  the  modern  Don  Quixotes  of  the  plains  is  but  poorly 
illustrated  in  Fig.  77.  In  this  machine  the  fans  are 
eight  feet  long  and  three  feet  wide,  with  their  broad- 
sides placed  so  as  to  catch  the  prevailing  north  and 
south  winds.  The  box  is  a  trifle  over  eight  feet  square, 
with  the  axle  of  the  wheel  resting  on  the  top  and  sides. 
The  lumber  had  to  be  hauled  fifty  miles,  and  yet  the 
whole  plant  cost  the  maker  but  fifty  dollars.     The 


WINDMILLS   AND    PUMPS. 


365 


water  was  raised  forty-five  feet  and  irrigated  five  acres. 
Such  a  mill  may  give  good  service  where  only  a  small 
quantity  of  water  is  required,  or  where  the  mill  is 
not  surrounded — nor  likely  to  be — by  trees  or  other 
obstrudtions  which  shut  off  the  winds;  but   for  irri- 


FIG.  77 — WIND    RUSTLER. 


gating  considerable  tra(5fs,  or  if  trees  or  buildings  are 
near  by  north  or  south,  results  will  scarcely  be  satis- 
factory. 

Another  plan  for  a  wind  rustler  is  used  in  Nebraska, 
Four  tall  posts  are  set  in  the  ground  at  proper  dis- 
tances apart.  A  wooden  windlass  revolves  in  boxings 
attached  to  the  top  of  each  pair  of  posts.  The  fans  are 
made  of  boards  set  into  auger-holes  in  the  middle  of  the 
windlass.  A  small  iron  crank  at  one  end  of  the  wind- 
lass operates  the  pump. 


366 


IRRIGATION  FARMING. 


Battle-Ax  Windmills.— In  its  simpler  form  this 
is  a  home-made  contrivance  which  consists  of  a  tower 
for  the  support  of  a  horizontal  axis  and  crank,  to 
which  arms  are  attached  bearing  fanlike  blades  at  the 
extremities,  which  have  a  real  or  fancied  resemblance 


''■  ■  ®^v 


^^^ 


FIG.   78 — BATTLE-AX    WINDMILL. 


to  a  battle-ax,  and  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  78. 
When  viewed  from  the  side  an  optical  illusion  is  pro- 
duced, and  these  revolving  blades  seem  to  be  slashing 
wildly  at  space  in  opposite  diredlions.  However,  they 
fight  their  way  through,  and  are  vic5lorious  mills, 
worthy  of  praise.  Like  the  Jumbo  wind  rustler,  the 
Battle- Ax  mill  has  its  axis  set  in  the  direcftion  of  the 
prevailing  wind — that  is,  north  and  south.  The  axis 
may  be  made  of  wood,  rounded  to  fit  in  wooden  bear- 


WINDMII.I.S  AND    PUMPS.  367 

ings,  or  it  may  be  of  wood,  but  with  metal  ends  or 
bearings.  It  may  be  gas-pipe  shafting,  or,  as  is  not 
uncommon,  the  axis  of  a  buggy  or  wagon.  This  is  the 
fundamental  part,  and  to  it  are  attached  the  four,  also 
six,  eight,  or  many  fans,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
Jumbo  itself  cannot  exceed  the  Battle- Ax  in  simplicity, 
cheapness,  or  power,  but  the  Battle-Ax  is  presumably 
the  superior  in  all  respedls.  These  mills  are  simple, 
cheap,  of  easy  construdlion,  and  are  quite  efficient.  In 
size  they  run  from  8  to  10  feet,  the  more  common  sizes, 
up  to  more  powerful  mills,  16  feet  in  diameter. 

The  Merry- Go-Round.— The  Merry-Go-Round 
is  a  realization  of  an  attempt  to  devise  home-made  mills 
of  unlimited  size  and  strength.  The  larger  ones  are  of 
rare  occurrence,  but  are  seen  in  several  parts  of  the 
far  west.  The  smaller  ones  are  mounted  on  towers, 
the  larger  ones  on  the  ground,  as  shown  in  Fig.  79. 
The  former  are  the  more  common  and  look  like  ele- 
vated water- tanks,  for  which  they  are  often  mistaken. 
The  fans  revolve  around  a  vertical  axis,  and  surround- 
ing all  is  a  series  of  movable  shutters,  which  come  to- 
gether and  form  a  sort  of  closed  cylinder  when  the 
mill  is  out  of  gear.  When  in  adlion  they  are  partly 
opened,  admitting  air  to  the  fan  on  one  side  and  ex- 
cluding it  from  the  other. 

We  have  in  mind  one  Merry-Go-Round  which  is  24 
feet  in  diameter,  and  carries  numerous  swinging  door- 
like fans  of  light  wood,  6  feet  high  by  4  feet  wide. 
The  fans  are  free  at  one  edge,  and,  like  a  flag  floating 
from  the  mast,  they  swing  edgewise  against  the  wind, 
this  being  the  line  of  least  resistance.  The  moment 
the  center  is  past  each  fan  in  turn  swings  back  against 


368  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  immovable  arms  and  exposes  its  24  square  feet  of 
surface  to  the  impa(5l  of  the  wind.  Half  the  fans  are 
thus  continually  in  the  wind  and  half  out  of  it.  Such  a 
mill,  well  made,  might  be  an  engine  of  strength,  but 
dEiref ul  work  and  well-considered  plans  are  necessary 


k 


FKi.   79 — THK    MEkRY-(iO-ROirND. 


to  avoid  resistance  and  loss  of  power.  This  is  proba- 
bly the  cheapest  and  most  efficient  mill  for  its  weight 
that  can  be  built.  This  mill  costs  $4.75,  exclusive  of 
home  labor,  pumps  an  8-inch  stream,  and  irrigates  10 
acres.  The  mill  shown  in  Fig.  79  is  a  more  elaborate 
mechanism,  as  it  is  40  feet  in  diameter  and  12  to  14 
feet  high.  It  runs  on  a  circular  steel-rail  track,  and  is 
connedled  by  cog-wheels  to  a  tumbling  shaft,  which 
drives  the  pumping  machinery. 


WINDMII,I.S   AND    PUMPS.  369 

Pumps. — There  are  four  distinct  types  of  pumps — , 
the  plunger  or  piston  pump,  which  includes  the  wind- 
mill, steam,  and  many  devices  of  power  pumps  ;  the 
vacuum,  the  rotary,  and  the  centrifugal,  besides  ele- 
vators which  raise  water  by  means  of  flights  attached 
to  an  endless  chain.  The  plunger  pump,  of  necessity, 
moves  the  water  more  slowly,  as  it  only  travels  at  the 
speed  of  the  piston.  The  plunger  pump  also  is  de- 
signed especially  for  handling  clear  water — grit,  sand, 
and  foreign  material  cut  the  pistons  and  barrel  of  the 
pump.  While  these  pumps  will  move  the  water 
slowly,  they  will  move  it  a  long  distance,  or  against 
heavy  pressure  when  properly  designed.  The  pumps 
of  next  greatest  capacity  are  the  rotary  pumps.  Of 
these  there  are  many  designs.  They  handle  water 
much  faster  than  do  plunger  pumps,  but  as  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  working  parts  of  these  pumps  should  fit 
closely,  there  is  necessarily  great  fridlion  and  corre- 
sponding loss  of  efiiciency,  and  hence  they  are  short- 
lived, especially  when  pumping  water  that  is  muddy 
or  gritty.  The  pumps  of  greatest  utility  for  low  lifts 
are  the  centrifugal  pumps.  These  are  built  with  no 
close-fitting  parts  and  no  valves  ;  consequently  there  is 
no  fridlion  on  the  parts  of  the  machinery,  and  they  are 
not  affected  by  sand,  mud,  or  gritty  water.  Hence, 
for  irrigation,  where  the  lift  does  not  exceed  fifty  feet, 
centrifugal  pumps  are  recognized  by  all  hydraulic  en- 
gineers as  the  most  efficient  and  durable,  the  cheapest 
and  best.  The  vacuum  pump  is  an  entirely  different 
principle,  having  no  movable  parts,  except  a  small 
automatic  shifting-bar  in  the  yoke  to  operate  the 
valves.     These  pumps  are  made  with  a  pair  of  cylin- 


370 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


ders  working  alternately  as  the  atmospheric  pressure  is 
removed  from  them,  thus  allowing  the  water  to  rush  in 
and  discharge  itself.  They  are  useful  only  for  small 
lifts,  and  theoretically  are  not  calculated  to  raise  water 
more  than  twenty  feet.  Some  are 
suomerged,  while  others  are  placed  on 
the  Surface  over  the  well. 

Various  Pumps.  — One  of  the 
best  piston  pumps  for  windmills  is  the 
Gause,  which  is  very  effedlive  when 


FIG.  80 — GAUSE   PUMP 
AND    POINTS. 


FIG.  81 — IRRIGATION  PUMP 
CYLINDER. 


Operated  in  conne(5lion  with  the  point  system,  as  snown 
in  Fig.  80.  This  pump  is  largely  used  in  Western  Kan- 
sas. In  many  of  the  piston  pumps  for  wind  power 
it  is  advisable  to  use  an  irrigation  cylinder  in  the  well. 


WINDMILLS   AND    PUMPS. 


371 


The  Buckeye  is  porcelain  lined,  and  it  is  said  to  be 
very  efficient.  The  simplicity  of  this  barrel  is  to  be 
seen  by  a  glance  at  Fig.  81.  Another  piston  pump  is 
the  Frizell,  and  there  are  many  more  of  equal  merit 
and  efficiency.  One  of  the  best 
pumps  is  the  Allweiler — known  to 
the  trade  as  the  Berlin — and  for  very 
deep  wells  and  the  wind  engine  it  is 
to  be  commended.  It  is  an  oscillating 
force-pump,  and  is  illustrated  in  Fig. 
82.  These  pumps  will  draw  water 
from  twenty  to  twenty-eight  feet,  and 
will  force  it  up  from  one  hundred  to 
three  hundred  feet,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  pumps.  These  pumps  are 
worked  by  a  lever  which  may  be 
placed  in  either  a  vertical  or  hori- 
zontal position  by  hand  as  well  as 
by  steam  or  windmill  power.  They 
were  awarded  the  highest  diploma 
and  medal  at  the  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion. One  of  these  pumps  was  put 
in  as  a  public  experiment  at  Good- 
land,  Kansas,  and  raised  a  four-inch 
stream  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet,  furnishing  enough 
water  to  irrigate  fifteen  acres.  The  whole  plant  cost 
three  hundred  and  eighty  dollars,  including  forty  dol- 
lars for  the  reservoir. 

In  rotary  pumps  there  are  several  good  styles.  The 
Wonder  pump  is  quite  popular  when  worked  with  a 
gasoline  engine  and  belt  power.  It  is  very  simple  in 
construdlion  and  operation,  having  no  valves.     It  does 


FIG.   82 — BERLIN 
OSCILLATING   PUMP. 


372 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


well  with  tubular  wells  and  will  readily  lift  three  hun- 
dred gallons  a  minute. 

The  Lambing  pump,  made  in  Denver,  is  rapidly 
coming  to  the  front.  It  is  a  rotary  force-pump  and 
has  a  capacity  of  from  two  hundred  to  six  thousand 
gallons  a  minute,  according  to  the  size.     The  writer 


FIG.  83 — THE    LOW-LIFT   VACUUM    PUMP. 

has  seen  the  smallest  Lambing  run  by  a  water-wheel 
raising  two  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  a  minute  forty 
feet  above  the  stream.  The  water-wheel  was  supplied 
from  a  power  ditch  and  the  pump  took  up  the  water 
that  was  discharged  from  the  wheel.  A  water  motor 
or  a  turbine  would  have  answered  in  the  same  way. 

Vacuum-Pumps. — These  clever  contrivances  are 
used  quite  extensively  in  the  west  and  in  the  rice-fields 


WINDMILI^  AND    PUMPS. 


373 


of  the  south.  There  are  two  kinds  shown  in  Figs.  83 
and  84.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  83  is  the  Huffer  patent 
and  is  calculated  to  lift  water  twenty  feet  or  less  and 
discharge  it  at  the  pump  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  other  is  the  Rogers  patent  and  is  made  for  deep 
wells — not  to  exceed  one  hundred  feet,  however.  It 
has  a  stand-pipe  for  taking 
the  water  at  the  pump,  which 
is  set  in  the  well  just  above 
the  water-line,  and  carrying 
to  the  surface,  where  it  is  dis- 
charged. The  mechanism  is 
simple,  consisting  of  two  ver-, 
tical  cylinders  attached  to  a 
single  sudlion-pipe  below  and 
conne(5led  above  by  a  sliding 
steam-valve  contrived  for  au- 
tomatic movement,  allowing 
steam  to  enter  the  cylinders 
alternately,  where  it  is  con- 
densed, creating  a  vacuum 
into  which  the  water  rises  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  escaping  from  one  cylinder  while  the 
other  is  filling,  thus  giving  a  continuous  flow  varying 
from  fifty  to  three  thousand  gallons  a  minute,  or  a 
three  hundred  and  thirty  inch  stream  under  a  four- inch 
head  for  the  largest  sized  pump.  Other  forms  of 
vacuum  pumps  are  the  Pulsometer,  Nye  and  Swan,  the 
latter,  however,  working  by  steam  and  hot  air  com- 
bined, requiring  high-pressure  boilers  and  an  air  con- 
denser, and  making  in  all  a  rather  expensive  plant. 
We  are  not  exadlly  satisfied  thus  far  with  the  operation 


FIG.  84 — HIGH-LIFT 
VACUUM    PUMP. 


374 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


of  these  vacuum-pumps,  and  would  rather  place  de- 
pendence upon  the  duplex  compound  pumps  with 
condensers.  In  these  pumps  the  steam  works  ex- 
pansively, first  in  the  high-pressure  cylinders,  and 
then,  by  exhaust,  into  the  opposite  low-pressure 
cylinders,  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders  be- 
ing tandem  on  the  cylinder,  and  the  condensers  re- 
turning hot  water  to  the  boiler  and  saving  valuable 
fuel. 

Centrifugals. — These  pumps  are  worked  by  sta- 
tionary engines  and  are  quite  generally  used  by  sewer 

contractors.  They  are 
good  for  low  lifts,  and 
will  throw  sand  and 
gravel  readily.  On  a 
twenty-foot  lift  a  No. 
i^  Van  Wie  pump 
will  irrigate  ten  acres 
of  land  and  require  a 
two  horse-power  en- 
gine. A  No.  2  pump 
will  supply  twenty 
acres,  requiring  three  horse-power.  No.  3  pump,  forty 
acres,  with  six  horse-power  engine.  No.  4  pump, 
eighty  acres,  with  ten  horse-power  engine.  No.  6 
pump,  160  acres,  with  twenty  horse-power  engine. 
No.  8  pump,  320  acres,  with  forty  horse-power  engine. 
The  writer  once  saw  an  ordinary  ten  horse-power 
threshing  engine  drive  a  No.  8  pump,  raising  water 
enough — 4,500  gallons  a  minute — to  irrigate  320  acres 
of  land  easily.  The  exterior  view  of  a  centrifugal 
pump  is  shown  in  Fig.  85. 


FIG.  85 — CENTRIFUGAL  PUMP. 


WINDMILLS   AND  PUMPS.  375 

The  Propeller  Pump. — The  basic  principle  of 
this  pump  is  that  the  water  is  lifted  by  screws,  some- 
what similar  to  propeller  screws,  termed  ' '  runners, ' ' 
each  consisting  of  two  half-circular  inclined  blades 
fastened  to  a  shaft  at  intervals  of  three  to  five  feet,  and 
of  slightly  less  diameter  than  the  casing,  so  as  to 
revolve  freely  within  the  well-casing,  with  a  boxing  for 
the  shaft  placed  immediately  underneath  each  of  the 
runners.  The  boxing  is  held  in  position  by  a  set  of 
spring  blades,  termed  *  *  guides, ' '  set  lengthwise  of  and 
engaging  the  well-casing,  and  thereby  held  firmly  in 
position,  and  so  arranged  as  to  interrupt  the  whirling 
motion  imparted  to  the  water  as  it  is  thrown  upward 
by  the  spiral  ac5lion  of  the  runners,  and  to  turn  the 
water  back  in  the  opposite  dire<5lion,  thereby  deliver- 
ing it  into  the  revolving  blades  of  the  runners  in  a 
dire(5lion  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  runners  are 
rotating.  By  this  method  the  whirling  motion  of  the 
water  is  utilized  and  the  capacity  of  the  pump  largely 
augmented  without  increase  of  power.  With  this 
pump  water  may  be  raised  from  several  hundred  feet 
below  the  surface  by  extending  the  shaft  and  runners 
down  the  well-casing  the  desired  depth,  it  being 
necessary,  however,  to  always  have  the  lower  runner 
submerged  in  water. 

As  the  shaft  rotates  the  lower  runner  lifts  the  water 
up  to  the  runner  above  it,  and  that  one  to  the  next, 
and  so  on  until  the  water  is  delivered  to  the  surface, 
or  above  the  surface  if  desired,  the  distance  depending 
upon  the  size  and  pitch  of  the  runners,  the  number  of 
runners,  and  the  speed  at  which  they  are  run.  No 
increase   of  speed  is   required   for   additional   depth. 


376  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

because  more  runners  are  added  as  the  depth  is 
increased.  This  compounding  of  the  runners  increases 
the  efficiency  of  the  pump,  for  whatever  number  of 
pounds  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  water  by  one  runner 
in  lifting  it  at  a  given  rate  of  speed  is  repeated  by  each 
of  the  runners.  For  example,  if  one  runner  running 
at  a  given  rate  of  speed  gives  ten  pounds  pressure  to  a 
square  inch,  then  two  runners  would  give  twenty 
pounds;  three,  thirty  pounds,  and  so  on.  For  this 
reason  water  may  be  elevated  higher  above  the  dis- 
charge with  this  pump  than  can  be  done  with  a  centri- 
fugal. These  pumps  are  provided  with  ball-bearings 
so  arranged  as  to  hold  the  shaft  and  runners  suspended 
in  the  well,  and  to  carry  the  entire  weight  of  all  the 
movable  parts  of  the  pump, .  and  also  the  entire 
weight  of  the  column  of  water,  thereby  making  a 
great  saving  of  power.  For  extreme  deep  lifts,  cone 
roller-bearings  are  used  in  place  of  the  ball-bearings. 
One  of  these  pumps  in  fourteen  hours  raised  1,190,000 
gallons  of  water,  100  feet  through  a  lo-inch  casing 
with  a  thirty  horse-power  engine.  Another  pump 
raised  190  miner's  inches  50  feet  with  twenty  horse- 
power. 

Hydraulic  Rams. — These  machines  have  been 
very  much  improved  of  late  years,  and  are  now  quite 
extensively  depended  upon  for  domestic  and  irrigating 
water-supply  in  the  west  and  south.  The  principle 
on  which  the  hydraulic  ram  works  is  simple  and  easily 
understood.  A  hydraulic  ram  consists  of  three  parts — 
two  valves  and  an  air-chamber.  In  Fig.  86  will  be 
seen  the  working  parts  of  a  ram  exposed  to  view.  / 
is  the  air-chamber;  P,  delivery  pipe;  JV,  overflow;  A, 


WINDMILLS   AND    PUMPS. 


377 


drive  pipe  connecftion;^^,  base;  M,  spring  supply  pipe; 
(9,  check- valve. 

The  chamber  is  bolted  onto  a  frame  which  forms, 
at  one  end,  an  entrance  into  the  ram  for  the  supply  of 
water,  and  connecfled  at  the  other  end  with  the  outside, 
or  impetus,  valve.     This  frame  also  contains,  placed  at 


FIG.   86 — HYDRAULIC    RAM    IN    PARIS. 


right  angles  with  the  supply  passage,  outlets  for  the 
water  discharged  to  the  reservoir.  There  is  an  open- 
ing just  above  the  supply-water  passage  into  the  air- 
chamber  through  its  valve.  The  outside,  or  impetus, 
valve  is  so  arranged — by  bending  upward  the  end  of 
the  supply  passage — that  when  it  is  closed,  by  being 
forced  or  held  up  against  its  seat,  no  water  can  escape; 


378  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

and  when  it  falls  down  of  its  own  weight,  or  is  held 
down,  the  water  can  flow  freely  from  the  ram.  This 
is  all  there  is  to  a  hydraulic  ram,  and  as  there  are  but 
two  valves  to  wear  it  will  last  a  lifetime. 

The  operation  in  forcing  the  water  is  as  simple  as 
the  means.  The  water  is  brought  to  the  ram  through 
a  supply  pipe  laid  on  an  incline.  Through  this  the 
water  flows  downward  and  out  at  the  impetus  valve 
until  it  has  acquired  power,  by  its  velocity,  to  throw 
the  valve  up  and  close  it.  The  momentum,  or  fcjrce, 
of  this  falling  stream  of  water  continues,  and  it  finds 
an  outlet  through  the  valve  in  the  air-chamber,  which 
opens.  The  water  continues  to  pour  into  the  air- 
chamber  until  the  pressure  of  the  air  is  equal  to  that 
of  the  head  of  water.  This  closes  the  air-chamber 
valve  and  confines  the  water  which  has  been  let  in. 
At  the  same  time  the  impetus-valve  opens  of  its  own 
weight,  as  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  supply  pipe 
has  been  overcome  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  the  air- 
chamber,  and  the  water  commences  to  waste  as  before. 
While  the  water  is  wasting  at  the  impetus-valve,  the 
expansion  of  the  air  in  the  air-chamber  forces  the  water 
out  through  the  discharge  pipe.  This  operation  will 
continue  as  long  as  the  working  parts  keep  in  good 
condition  and  the  water  supply  lasts. 

The  supply  must  be  from  four  to  twelve  feet  higher 
than  the  location  of  the  ram,  and  from  twelve  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  distant  from  it.  In  locating  a 
ram,  not  only  the  fall  and  distance  must  be  taken  into 
consideration,  but  some  means  of  draining  the  waste 
water  from  the  ram  must  be  provided.  If  the  ram  must 
be  located  in  a  pit  to  get  the  desired  fall,  a  drain  must 


WINDMILLS   AND   PUMPS. 


379 


be  provided,  starting  from  the  bottom  of  the  pit.  If  it 
is  not  pradlicable  to  locate  the  ram  the  desired  distance 
from  the  supply,  a  number  of  coils  may  be  made  in 
the  pipe.  In  this  manner  a  ram  may  be  located 
dire(5lly  under  the  supply,  and  will  work  equally  well. 
The  supply  must  determine  the  size  of  the  pipe  to  be 
used.  Never  use  a  ram  that  is  too  large  for  the  sup- 
ply.    If  the  supply  pipe  is  not  kept  full  the  ram  will 


U^a^7^~ 


FIG.  87 — HYDRAULIC    ENGINE   IN    OPERATION. 

not  work  to  advantage,  and  will  eventually  stop  and 
give  trouble.  Fig.  87  illustrates  a  ram  operating  under 
very  favorable  circumstances. 

The  water  can  be  discharged  to  an  elevation  several 
times  the  fall  of  the  water  from  the  reservoir  to  the 
ram,  the  greatest  fall  causing  the  discharge  of  the 
greatest  amount  of  water  at  a  given  hight,  or  a  given 
amount  of  water  to  a  greater  hight.  Or,  in  other 
words,  about  one-seventh  of  the  water  furnished  to  the 
ram  may  be  raised  to  a  hight  of  four  times  the  hight  of 
the  supply,  one-fourteenth  to  eight  times  the  hight  of 


38o 


IRRIGATION    FAKMING. 


the  supply,  one-twenty-eighth  to  sixteen  times  the 
hight  of  the  supply,  and  so  on.  The  manufa<5lurer  of 
Rife's  ram  gives  the  following  rule  for  ascertaining 
how  many  gallons  may  be  delivered  in  an  hour:  Mul- 
tiply the  number  of  gallons  the  ram  will  receive 
through  the  supply  pipe  a  minute  by  the  feet  in  fall. 
Multiply  the  produ(5l  by  forty,  then  divide  by  the  num- 
ber of  feet  the  water  is  to  be  elevated  above  the  ram. 
The  result  will  be  the  number  of  gallons  delivered  in 
an  hour. 

Water-Motors. — In  large  streams  of  vSteady  cur- 
rent the  Harvey  water-motor,  an  outline  of  which  is 


*ek»^ 


>. 


J(-lleTj»r/*J  < 


FIG.  88 — HARVEY    WATER-MOTOR. 


T-JlLB^-L^^ 


given  in  Fig.  88,  is  considered  quite  a  success  in  lifting 
water  for  irrigation.  By  the  use  of  wing  dams  in  the 
stream  the  force  of  the  current  operates  diredlly  upon 
the  wheel  at  the  lower  point  of  the  dams,  and  in  this 
way  power  is  created  for  running  a  centrifugal  pump. 
The  wheel  is  a  combination  of  an  undershot  and  breast 
wheel  hung  on  a  swinging  frame,  and  is  balanced  by 
a  counterweight.  Its  gearing  is  a  sprocket-wheel,  so 
that  it  can  be  raised  or  lowered  with  the  varying  rise 
or  fall  of  the  river  without  any  readjustment  of  gear- 


WINDMII,!^   AND   PUMPS.  38 1 

ing.  Mr.  F.  H.  Harvey's  wheel  at  Douglas,  Wyoming, 
is  ten  feet  in  diameter,  fourteen  feet  long,  and  secures 
sixty  horse-power,  operating  a  3)^ -inch  pump,  which 
delivers  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  a  minute  to  a 
hight  of  sixteen  feet.  The  same  power  is  sufficient 
to  operate  a  five-inch  pump,  which  would  raise 
seven  thousand  gallons  a  minute.  The  cost  of  the 
wheel  compared  with  what  it  accomplishes  is  but  a 
trifle.  I^abor  and  material,  including  the  pump  on  the 
Harvey  plant,  amounted  to  $1,200.  As  much  of  the 
work  was  experimental,  it  was  necessarily  slow.  A 
like  plant  can  be  put  in  for  $800,  and  most  of  the  work 
can  be  done  by  the  farmer.  The  daily  expense  of 
operation  is  merely  nominal,  and  it  requires  no  attend- 
dance  except  to  oil  the  machinery  occasionally. 

The  Hurdy-Gurdy. — This  is  a  late  improvement 
which  is  best  illustrated  in  Fig.  89,  which  shows  the 
runner  only  and  does  not  include  the  gearing.  This 
wheel  is  of  the  impulse  and  reacflion  class  especially 
adapted  to  high  heads  and  mountain  streams.  This 
cascade  wheel  has  been  placed  under  heads  as  high  as 
seven  hundred  feet,  and  is  capable  of  utilizing  head 
pressures  as  high  as  2,000  to  2,500  feet.  The  water  is 
admitted  to  the  wheel  by  means  of  nozzles  projedling 
one  or  more  jets,  which  strike  the  circular  ridge  divid- 
ing the  water  into  equal  portions,  passing  into  the 
buckets,  the  buckets  alternating  to  the  jet,  the  arrange- 
ment giving  ninety  per  cent,  of  efficiency.  The  gear- 
ing of  this  wheel  is  easily  applied  to  rotary  or  centrif- 
ugal pumps,  and  water  is  raised  in  this  way.  The 
turbine  class  of  water-wheels  operates  upon  a  different 
principle.     Turbines  are  submerged  entirely  under  the 


382 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


water,  which  gives  them  their  power  upon  a  different 
place,  they  receiving  this  power  from  the  pressure  and 
reacflion  of  the  water.  A  more  primitive  affair  having 
the  same  obje(5l  in  view  is  the  common  water-wheel 
often  seen  in  the  west.  Every  one  knows  of  the  stem- 
wheel  steamboats  that  navigate  shallow  streams.  These 
afford  an  instance  of  the  kind  of 
wheel  to  be  used — simply  a  large 
one  with  paddles  or  floats  on  the 
end  of  the  arms,  by  which  the  cur- 
rent of  the  stream  turns  the  wheel; 
and  by  means  of  proper  gearing 
the  motion  is  conveyed  to  a  pump, 
by  which  the  water  of  the  stream 
may  be  raised  through  pipes  to 
reasonable  hight  and  distance.  A 
stream  nine  feet  deep  and  one 
hundred  feet  wide  flowing  four 
miles  an  hour  will  exert  a  very 
great  power.  A  common  float  or 
paddle-wheel  twenty  feet  in  diam- 
eter working  in  a  stream  of  this 
kind  will  make  four  revolutions  in 
a  minute,  which  by  cheap  gearing 
may  operate  a  pump  with  sixty 
strokes  a  minute,  this  being  more 
than  ample  to  raise  water  sixty  feet  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  irrigate  twenty  to  forty  acres  of  land.  The  cost 
of  such  a  wheel  would  be  quite  small,  not  over  $50. 
The  wheel  should  be  submerged  over  eighteen  inches 
in  the  water,  which  will  be  the  width  of  the  floats.  If 
more  power  is  desired,  the  floats  may  be  increased  in 


FIG.  89. 

THE    HURDY-GURDY 


WINDMIIvLS   AND    PUMPS.  383 

width.  It  will  be  the  square  feet  of  area  of  each  float 
submerged  at  one  time  that  will  be  the  measure  of  the 
power  in  a  uniform  current. 

The  current,  or  bucket,  wheel  is  quite  an  institution 
in  many  large  streams,  and  it  is  a  good  thing  where 
the  current  is  steady  and  strong.  By  attaching  buck- 
ets to  its  arms  or  vSweeps,  sufficient  water  can  be  raised 
to  irrigate  small  tracts  close  to  the  stream.  The  turn- 
ing of  the  wheel  by  the  current  at  the  same  time  fills 
the  buckets,  which  are  emptied  at  a  certain  hight  into 
a  trough  or  flume,  and  in  this  way  the  water  is  carried 
to  the  land. 

Gasoline  Engines. — Very  effe<5live  pump  power 
can  be  gained  by  the  use  of  the  portable  gasoline 
engine,  which  consists  of  base,  cylinder,  piston,  con- 
nec5ling-rod,  crank-shaft,  and  fly-wheels.  The  modus 
operandi  and  the  development  of  power  is  as  follows  : 
In  starting  up,  on  the  first  outstroke  of  the  piston  a 
mixture  of  air  impregnated  with  the  proper  amount  of 
gasoline  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder,  passing  through 
the  valve  chambers.  On  the  instroke  of  the  piston, 
this  mixture  in  the  cylinder  is  compressed  into  space 
between  the  cylinder-head  and  the  piston.  The  com- 
bustible mixture  is  then  ignited  by  the  most  reliable, 
safe,  and  simple  device  possible — a  short  iron  tube 
closed  at  the  outer  end  and  connec5led  to  the  interior 
of  the  cylinder,  enclosed  in  a  chimney  and  heated  by 
a  burner  ;  and  the  air  being  expanded  by  the  heat  in- 
volved, an  impulse  is  given  to  the  piston.  When  the 
piston  has  reached  the  second  outstroke  the  exhaust- 
valve  is  opened  and  remains  open  during  the  second 
instroke  of  the  piston,  and  the  produdls  of  combustion 


384  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

are  expelled  through  the  exhaust-pipe,  which  is  con- 
dudled  to  the  outer  air. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  cost  of  a  twenty  horse- 
power gasoline  engine  is  about  $1,450,  and  a  thirty 
horse-power  about  $2,000.  The  cost  of  running  the 
first  will  be  about  forty  cents  an  hour,  and  the  second 
sixty  cents.  The  amount  of  water  raised  will  depend 
upon  the  lift,  the  kind  of  pump  used,  and  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  plant.  Assuming  a  lift  of  ten 
feet,  a  twenty  horse-power  engine  should  lift  about 
five  hundred  inches,  and  a  thirty  horse-power  about 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  inches.  For  engines  to  raise 
one  or  two  inches  continuous  flow  the  expense  would 
be  somewhat  greater  in  proportion.  The  cost  of  oper- 
ating these  engines  in  localities  where  seventy-four 
degree  gasoline  can  be  obtained  in  quantities  at  ten 
cents  a  gallon,  is  one  cent  for  each  exerted  horse- 
power per  minute. 

Hot-Air  Engines.— These  are  construaed  almost 
wholly  for  pumping  purposes,  the  motive  power  and 
pumping  apparatus  being  combined  in  one  machine 
inseparably  connected  in  one  frame.  As  its  name  im- 
plies, the  power  is  furnished  by  the  heating  of  air, 
which  being  forced  into  a  cylinder  when  cold,  expands 
with  the  application  of  heat,  and  the  alternate  heating 
and  cooling  of  the  air  as  it  passes  in  and  out  of  the 
cylinders  furnishes  the  motive  power.  The  hot-air 
engine  is  not  adapted  to  heavy  work,  such  as  the 
steam-engine.  After  fire  has  been  applied  for  a  short 
time,  and  the  air  in  the  chamber  has  expanded,  it  is 
neces.sary  before  the  engine  will  start  to  turn  the  bal- 
ance-wheel.    This  requires  the  strength  of  a  man,  but 


WINDMII.LS  AND    PUMPS.  385 

after  turning  the  wheel  once  around  the  engine  can 
take  care  of  itself,  and  any  child  old  enough  to  place 
a  shovelful  of  coal  in  the  fire-box  of  a  stove,  and  who 
can  be  trusted  to  handle  a  fire  can  then  operate  the 
engine  an  entire  day. 

The  cost  of  operating  is  small,  and  wood,  coal,  or 
cobs  can  be  utilized.  A  kerosene  oil  attachment  is 
always  furnished.  When  oil  is  used  the  flow  is  self- 
regulating,  and  after  starting  the  engine  it  requires  no 
further  attention  for  eight  or  ten  hours.  A  special 
pump  is  necessary,  which  is  furnished  with  the  engine. 
The  hot-air  engine  makes  from  80  to  160  strokes  a 
minute,  and  its  capacity  ranges  from  a  few  gallons  to 
one- tenth  of  a  second  foot  a  minute,  equivalent  to  two- 
tenths  of  an  acre  foot  a  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  lim- 
ited by  the  hight  of  lift  which  varies  from  a  few  yards 
to  500  feet.  The  price  of  the  hot-air  engine,  including 
pump,  etc. ,  is  from  $300  to  $600,  according  to  size  of 
cylinder,  the  former  price  being  for  a  six-inch  and  the 
latter  for  a  ten-inch  cylinder.  As  the  six-inch  cylinder 
is  as  small  as  should  be  used  for  deep  well  pumping, 
it  is  readily  seen  that  the  cost  has  prevented  more 
general  introdudtion  of  this  device  for  pumping  water 
on  the  farms  of  the  west. 

Compressed  Air. — Modern  science  is  ac5tively  at 
work  endeavoring  to  employ  air  in  raising  water  from 
wells,  and  two  or  three  feasible  plans  have  already  been 
devised.  One  is  the  Chapman  process,  illustrated  in 
Fig.  90,  which  shows  the  apparatus  as  devised  for  a 
well.  By  means  of  the  proper  machinery  the  injedted 
air  causes  the  well  to  flow.  Air  is  forced  down  the 
small  pipe,  comes  up  in  a  cone  shape,  filling  the  well- 


386 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


pipe  and  carrying  the  water  with  its  force.     It  also 

lightens  the  water  column  and  causes  the  water  to  flow 
through  the  pipes  in  torrents. 
It  is  suitable  to  be  used  in  wells 
of  any  depth,  and  any  number 
of  wells  at  any  distance  apart 
can  be  operated  from  one  en- 
gine. It  is  claimed  that  by  this 
system  more  water  can  be  raised 
than  by  any  other,  but  to  the 
writer's  mind  this  claim  is  not 
wholly  clear.  Another  scheme 
is  Merrill's  pneumatic  system, 
by  which  water  may  be  elevated 
from  as  many  sources  as  may 
be  desired.  Fig.  91  represents 
two  sources,  with  wind  and 
gasoline  engine  power,  arranged 
to  use  separately  or  in  combina- 
tion. The  plan  is  said  to  be 
entirely  practicable.  In  the 
cut,  A  is  the  compressor  ;  B, 
the  air-pipe  leading  to  the  well; 
C,  the  injedtor  in  the  bottom  of 
the  well ;  Z?,  a  similar  arrange- 
ment in  the  other  well  ;  E  is 
the  discharge  pipe,  and  F\s  the 
bank  or  reservoir.  The  same 
power  can  be  utilized,  by  gear- 
ing and  belts,  in  doing  a  great 

amount   of   work,  such  as  churning,    grinding,   etc. 

One  man  can  attend  to  the  whole  outfit,  and  if  the 


FIG.  90. 

AIR   COMPRESSOR. 


WINDMILLS    AND    PUMPS. 


387 


water-lifting  arrangement  is  not  as  yet  wholly  com- 
plete, Yankee  ingenuity  will  soon  make  it  so,  as  the 
principle  is  all  right. 

Repairs  of  Windmills. — At  least  once  a  year  a 
windmill  pumping  plant  should  be  overhauled  and  put 
in  repair.  First  the  pump  should  be  repacked,  if  the 
valves  leak.      The  check-valve  must   be    absolutely 


THE   PNEUMATIC    SYSTEM. 


water-tight.  Not  a  particle  of  water  must  run  through 
when  the  valve  is  shut.  If  it  does  the  pump-pipe  will 
become  empty  and  the  water  will  not  start  for  a  time, 
nor  will  it  start  at  all  without  priming  if  the  check- 
valve  is  above  the  water-level  in  the  well.  The  piston- 
valve  must  be  renewed  when  worn,  otherwise  but  part 
of  the  water  is  raised  with  the  stroke,  and  when  the 
wind  is  light  the  windmill  will  run  without  raising  any 
water;  this  would  be  dangerous,  for  at  a  certain  speed 


388  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  mill  will  pump  just  fast  enough  to  freeze  water  in 
the  pump,  when  an  increased  wind  will  smash  things. 
Put  both  valves  in  perfect  order.  As  for  the  windmill, 
if  a  solid  wheel,  see  that  the  brake  is  adjusted  so  that 
it  will  hold  the  wheel  motionless  when  out  of  wind. 
If  the  brake  has  too  light  pressure,  a  change  of  wind, 
if  the  wind  is  light,  will  turn  the  wheel  slowly  with- 
out acfting  on  the  vane,  and  it  will  pump  slowly  and 
freeze  the  water.  The  main  things  are  tight  valves, 
so  that  water  will  be  pumped  when  the  windmill  turns, 
no  matter  how  slowly  ;  a  small  vent  to  let  the  water 
back  after  pumping  ceases — small  enough  so  it  will 
not  allow  water  to  run  out  fast  enough,  when  pumping 
slowly,  to  cut  oif  the  flow  from  the  spout — and  a  tight 
brake  to  hold  the  wheel  perfedlly  motionless  when 
turned  out  of  wind.  If  wooden  tanks  leak  from 
shrinkage  the  evil  can  soon  be  remedied  by  throwing 
in  a  quart  or  so  of  bran,  which  will  soon  fill  the 
crevices  and  stop  leakage. 

Cost  of  Lifting  Water. — The  cost  of  furnishing 
the  power  by  means  of  steam  varies  according  to  the 
amount  to  be  furnished  and  the  cost  of  fuel.  It 
requires  the  same  labor  to  attend  a  five  horse-power 
boiler  and  engine  as  it  would  require  for  a  fifty  horse- 
power outfit.  It  will  probably  average  twenty-five  to 
thirty-five  cents  for  each  horse-power  for  the  operation 
of  any  plant  of  ten  to  twenty-five  horse-power  capacity. 
Say  it  costs  thirty  cents;  then  the  cost  of  putting  one 
inch  of  water  on  twenty-four  acres  a  day  would  be 
three  dollars  for  a  twenty-five  foot  elevation,  or  twelve 
and  one-half  cents  an  acre.  Or,  in  other  words,  a  two- 
inch  flow  on  each  acre  could  be  obtained  for  twenty- 


WINDMII.I.S   AND    PUMPS.  389 

five  cents  if  produced  by  steam.  A  centrifugal  pump, 
driven  by  a  gasoline  engine,  would  accomplish  the 
same  result  at  an  expenditure  not  to  exceed  eight  or 
nine  cents.  This  engine  needs  no  attention.  It  uses 
but  one  gallon  of  gasoline  for  each  horse-power  in  a 
day  of  ten  hours.  Wind  engine  power  costs  so  little 
that  the  total  annual  expense  of  operation  is  merely 
nominal.  A  good  windmill  plant  with  a  reservoir 
large  enough  to  irrigate  ten  or  fifteen  acres  need  not 
cost  to  exceed  three  hundred  dollars  originally,  and 
such  an  installation  would  last  for  years. 

Capacity  of  Pumps. — The  quantity  of  water  a 
windmill  will  lift  into  a  reservoir  during  an  average  of 
eight  hours'  run  a  day  depends  entirely  on  conditions. 
If  a  mill  of  a  given  capacity  has  to  lift  the  water  from 
a  considerable  depth,  it  cannot  raise  as  much  as  if  the 
water  is  lifted  only  a  few  feet.  For  this  reason,  in  the 
latter  case  a  larger  sized  pump  may  be  operated  by  the 
same  force  exerted  on  a  smaller  size,  when  the  water 
is  taken  from  a  considerable  depth. 

Theoretically,  one  horse-power  will  raise  a  five- 
inch  column  of  water  one  hundred  feet,  a  six-inch 
column  seventy  feet,  and  an  eight-inch  column  forty 
feet;  additional  horse-power  will  elevate  the  water  in 
direcft  proportion.  A  ten- foot  mill  will  develop  one-half 
of  one  horse-power;  a  twelve-foot  mill  three-fourths 
horse-power;  a  fourteen-foot  mill  one  horse-power,  and 
each  additional  two  feet  in  diameter  of  wheel  develops 
pradlically  one  additional  horse-power  up  to  a  thirty- 
foot  mill,  which  develops  eight  horse-power.  The 
cost  of  the  mill  ranges  from  forty  dollars  for  the 
smallest  size,  up  to  four  hundred  dollars  for  the  largest. 


390  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

A  five-inch  pump  geared  to  run  forty-eight  eight- 
inch  strokes  a  minute  will  discharge  i,86o  gallons  of 
water  an  hour;  a  six-inch  pump  geared  in  the  same  way 
will  discharge  2,760  gallons  an  hour,  and  an  eight-inch 
pump  will  discharge  4,860  gallons  an  hour,  A  reser- 
voir one  hundred  feet  square  by  four  feet  will  contain 
40,000  cubic  feet,  or  about  300,000  gallons  of  water. 
A  five-inch  pump  discharging  1,860  gallons  an  hour 
will  in  one-third  of  a  day,  or  eight  hours,  discharge 
14,880  gallons.  In  twenty  days  of  eight  hours  each — 
this  is  assuming  that  the  windmill  runs  one-third  of 
the  time — 297,600  gallons  of  water  will  be  secured, 
practically  filling  the  300,000  gallon  reservoir.  Dur- 
ing the  six  months  from  April  to  September,  inclusive, 
there  are  nine  periods  of  twenty  days  each.  There- 
fore, the  reservoir  can  be  emptied  and  refilled  nine 
times  during  the  six  months,  resulting  in  an  aggregate 
of  2,700,000  gallons  of  water  for  irrigation  purposes, 
equal  to  360,000  cubic  feet.  This  is  sufficient  water- 
supply  to  irrigate  ten  or  eleven  acres  of  ordinary  soil 
nine  times  during  the  season,  which  would  be  the 
maximum  number  of  wettings.  A  steam-pumping 
plant  with  a  fifty  horse-power  engine  will  raise 
7,500,000  gallons  of  water  to  a  hight  of  ten  feet  every 
ten  hours.  This  amount  of  water  will  cover  twenty- 
three  acres  to  the  depth  of  a  foot  in  the  period  men- 
tioned. The  cost  of  the  plant  will  approximate  $3,000. 
It  will  require  one  man  to  operate  it,  and  about  one 
ton  of  coal  daily  to  keep  it  in  operation.  In  many 
places  wood  is  so  abundant  and  cheap  that  coal  is  not 
needed  to  be  used,  while  in  numerous  localities  straw 
or  cobs  may  be  burned,  thereby  reducing  the  cost  of 


WINDMILLS  AND    PUMPS.  391 

fuel  to  a  minimum.  A  four-inch  centrifugal  pump, 
with  a  gasoline  engine  of  two  and  one-half  net  horse- 
power, will  raise  9,000  gallons  of  water  an  hour 
twenty -five  feet  vertically,  and  it  can  be  operated 
twenty-four  hours  a  day,  or  less,  as  desired. 

Pumping  from  Quicksand. — It  is  easy  and  eco- 
nomical to  secure  a  supply  of  water  by  means  of  pumps 
placed  along  the  banks  of  our  ordinary  prairie  streams. 
A  well  can  be  sumped  to  give  a  moderate  amount  of 
water  at  comparatively  small  expense,  but  an  attempt 
to  pump  enough  water  to  cover  300  acres  or  so  a  day 
would  be  undertaking  a  very  difficult  task.  A  trough, 
or  long  well,  seems  to  be  quite  feasible,  and  would  be 
pradlical  if  it  could  be  secured  to  a  sufficient  depth; 
but  it  is  quite  difficult  to  dig  a  well  in  the  quicksand 
over  five  or  six  feet  deep  made  in  this  shape.  There 
are,  however,  three  different  kinds  of  wells  which  can 
be  placed  in  quicksands.  The  most  substantial  and 
costly  is  the  sinking  of  a  rock  wall.  This  is  a  very 
expensive  job.  The  next  best  is  a  circular  well  of 
sufficient  diameter  to  give  a  required  amount  of  water, 
which  may  be  termed  an  open  brick  wall.  It  should 
be  built  of  vitrified  brick,  with  the  back  filled  with 
gravel.  No  cement  or  mortar  whatever  is  needed,  but 
an  opening  of  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  should 
be  left  between  the  ends  of  the  bricks.  This  space 
will  allow  the  water  at  all  stages  to  come  in  through 
the  sides  of  the  wall,  as  well  as  up  from  the  bottom. 
In  sinking  a  solid  rock  wall  all  water  is  necessarily 
shut  out  from  the  sides,  leaving  only  the  bottom  from 
which  water  can  come  in. 

If  a  well  can  be  secured  with  four  feet  of  lift  with 


392  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

which  to  start,  by  the  time  the  pump  has  been  running 
a  short  time  the  water  will  have  been  lowered  to  a 
level  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet,  and  if  the  bottom  of  the 
well  is  located  in  gravel  strata,  as  it  should  be,  chances 
are  good  that  a  well  ten  feet  in  diameter  will  supply 
two  twelve-inch  pumps.  One  four-horse  gasoline  engine 
costing  about  $250  will  operate  these  two  pumps. 
The  two  pumps  would  cost  $100,  the  pump-jack  and 
walking-beams  $100  more,  making  $450,  or,  for  a  safe 
estimate,  $500  for  the  plant  after  the  well  and  water- 
supply  have  been  secured.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
estimate  the  cost  of  the  material  for  such  a  well.  "With 
hard  brick  at  $10  a  thousand,  a  well  ten  feet  in 
diameter  and  twenty  feet  deep  can  be  put  in  for  $500, 
making  a  complete  plant  capable  of  supplying  two 
twelve-inch  pumps,  or  422,640  gallons  in  twenty-four 
hours.  It  is  estimated  that  this  would  cover  from  six- 
teen to  twenty  acres  of  ground  every  twenty-four 
hours,  with  a  first  cost  of  from  $1,000  to  $1,200. 
These  plants  could  be  duplicated  about  1,000  feet 
apart  until  the  necessary  amount  has  been  secured  to 
supply  the  land  under  the  ditch. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  pradlical  ways  of  securing 
water  along  insufficient  streams,  although  a  cheaper 
well  can  be  made  with  what  is  called  perforated  cast- 
ing. This  casting,  made  of  galvanized  sheet  steel  and 
thoroughly  riveted  together,  is  pressed  down  into  the 
sand  and  the  -sand  subsequently  baled  out  from  the 
inside.  After  it  has  been  carried  down  to  the  desired 
depth  the  bottom  is  filled  with  gravel  or  rock  to  pre- 
vent the  sand  from  rising.  The  pump  can  be  lowered 
into  these  tubes,  leaving  them  in  an  almost  open  body 


WINDMILLS  AND    PUMPS.  393 

of  water,  as  the  castings  are  perforated  with  inch  slots 
the  entire  length.  The  greatest  difficulty  in  putting 
them  in  would  be  the  encountering  of  boulders  or  rock 
in  the  sand,  which  would  cause  loss  of  labor  on  a  well, 
as  the  pipe  would  have  to  be  pulled  up  and  removed 
to  another  point. 

Another  satisfadlory  well  which  is  very  substantial 
and  will  last  a  lifetime  is  that  which  is  known  as  the 
Cook  tubular  well.  This  is  made  by  sinking  a  series 
of  pipes,  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter,  down  to  a 
gravel  stratum  through  the  quicksand.  This  gravel 
affords  good  pressure,  which  will  raise  the  water  up  to 
or  a  little  above  the  original  water-level.  When  these 
points  are  put  down  into  the  gravel  and  four  or  five  of 
them  are  connected  to  one  powerful  pump,  about  i,ooo 
gallons  a  minute  can  be  pumped  from  them  from  one 
year's  end  to  another.  Many  portions  of  our  western 
territory  must  sooner  or  later  depend  on  pump-water 
for  irrigation  along  its  valleys  and  rivers  during  the 
middle  of  the  summer.  Owners  should  put  installa- 
tions at  their  places  sufficient  to  supply  their  farms 
without  the  use  of  the  river.  ' 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
DEVICES,  APPLIANCES  AND  CONTRIVANCES. 

HHERE  are  innumerable  devices  in  use  in  irri- 
gating operations,  some  of  which  may  be 
of  home-made  construction,  and  these  the 
author  will  describe  but  briefly,  after  having 
given  the  details  for  a  city  sewerage  system  as 
applied  to  irrigation  operations  near  several  western 
cities.  We  include  this  reference  to  sewage  in  this 
chapter  not  because  it  properly  belongs  herein,  but 
from  the  fadl  that  space  forbids  a  separate  chapter 
devoted  to  it  and  there  is  no  other  place  in  which  it 
might  properly  appear. 

In  irrigation  work  the  operator  needs  first  of  all 
things  a  pair  of  heavy  rubber  boots  and  a  long-handled, 
round-pointed  vshovel.  These  might  well  constitute 
his  entire  working  outfit,  and  with  a  simple  knowledge 
of  irrigation,  as  we  have  endeavored  to  present  in  the 
preceding  pages,  he  is  ready  to  do  a  day's  work  in  any 
field  requiring  the  magic  touch  of  the  vivifying  waters. 
A  Sewage  System. — The  rich  fertihzing  elements 
of  the  city  sewers  may  often  be  carried  out  upon 
garden  tra(5ls,  and  there  applied  to  the  best  possible 
advantage.  The  writer  will  describe  the  system  in 
vogue  at  Trinidad,  Colorado,  which  may  answer  for 
all.  This  sewer  is  construdled  of  eighteen-inch  vitri- 
fied pipe  laid  to  a  grade  of  two-tenths  of  a  foot  in  one 

394 


DEVICES,    APPI^IANCES   AND   CONTRIVANCES.     395 

hundred  feet  to  the  mile,  the  sewer  having  a  velocity 
of  2.58  feet  a  second  of  time  when  running  full.  The 
sewer,  unfortunately,  had  to  cross  the  Las  Animas 
river,  which  was  accomplished  by  the  means  of  an 
inverted  siphon  made  of  sixteen-inch  cast-iron  pipe 
having  a  masonry  catch-basin  at  either  end,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  92.  The  siphon  carries  a  current  having  a 
velocity  of  4.68  feet  a  second  when  running  full,  a 
rather  high  velocity  being  necessary  to  keep  it  from 
choking.  A  masonry  chamber  is  built  at  the  mouth  of 
the  outlet,  from  which  the  sewer  is  condudled  to 
various  reservoirs.     There  are  automatic  flushers  at 


FIG.  92 — INVERTED  SEWER  SYSTEM. 

the  head  of  each  lateral,  so  that  the  sewage  is  well 
diluted  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  final  outlet,  very 
little  solid  matter  remaining.  The  sewage  might  just 
as  well  be  delivered  into  open  ditches  from  the  siphon 
catchment,  and  these  could  serve  as  head  ditches  at  the 
land  to  be  irrigated,  provided,  of  course,  the  grade 
would  be  sufficient.  In  winter  the  surplus  sewage 
might  be  condudled  to  various  reservoirs,  where  it 
could  be  stored  or  allowed  to  seep  away  as  desired. 

In  selecfting  ground  for  a  sewage  farm  account 
must  be  taken  of  the  relative  elevation  of  the  land,  and 
of  the  town,  manufacfturing  establishment,  or  residence 
from  which  the  material  comes.  Whenever  possible, 
as  a  matter  of  economy,  the  farm  should  be  seledled 


396  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

with  reference  to  the  sewage  reaching  it  by  gravity. 
If,  however,  the  location  does  not  admit  of  such  pro- 
cedure, pumps  may  be  utilized,  although  this  fre- 
quently will  entail  considerable  additional  expense  in 
first  cost  of  plant  as  well  as  in  the  annual  outlay  for 
operation  and  maintenance.  In  some  cases,  where 
land  can  be  reached  by  gravity  by  going  considerable 
distance  or  can  be  covered  by  pumping  within  a  short 
distance,  carefully  prepared  estimates,  taking  into 
account  all  the  elements  of  first  cost,  as  well  as  the 
annual  cost  of  maintenance  and  operation,  may  show 
that  it  is  cheaper  to  deliver  the  sewage  a  long  distance 
by  gravity  than  a  shorter  distance  by  pumping. 

Formerly  it  was  also  considered  important  to  seledl 
a  sewage  farm  with  reference  to  the  surrounding  in- 
habitation, because  there  was  prejudice  against  such 
farms  on  account  of  the  assumed  liability  to  efiluvium 
nuisance.  This  objedlion  has  much  less  weight  now 
than  it  formerly  had,  because  experience  has  fully  de- 
monstrated that  with  proper  management  a  sewage 
farm  is  no  more  objedlionable  on  account  of  bad  smells 
than  any  other  form  of  farming. 

For  best  results  the  top-soil  of  a  sewage  farm  should 
be  of  permeable  charadler,  with  a  gravelly  or  sandy 
subsoil.  If  it  is  compadl  clay  the  sewage  cannot  enter, 
and  the  only  purification  attained  will  be  that  due  to 
coming  in  contacft  with  the  soil  by  flowing  over  it.  It 
is  possible  to  so  treat  sewage  and  prepare  a  farm  as  to 
attain  a  very  high  degree  of  purification  even  with 
clay  soils,  but  the  chance  of  doing  this  at  commercial 
profit  is  exceedingly  small.  If  not  naturally  level  or 
of  very  uniforni  slope,  a  sewage  farm  for  best  results 


DEVICES,   APPLIANCES  AND   CONTRIVANCES.     397 

should  be  leveled,  so  that  the  sewage  may  flow  equally 
over  every  portion.  It  should  also  be  laid  out  with 
distributing  channels  having  a  proper  inclination,  in 
order  to  deliver  the  sewage  readily  to  all  parts  of  the 
farm.  Formerly  it  was  considered  necessary  that 
the  carriers  be  lined  with  earthenware,  concrete,  or 
other  impervious  material,  to  prevent  the  sewage  sink- 
ing into  the  ground  during  its  passage  along  them,  but 
now  the  more  ordinary  pracftice  is  simply  to  make  earth 
ditches  with  flat  slopes.  As  to  the  best  size  of  the 
field  for  irrigation,  everything  depends  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  sewage  to  be  disposed  of  and  the  chara(5ler  of 
the  soil.  Any  ordinary  crop  can  be  grown  by  this 
system. 

Artesian  Well  Machinery. — The  success  of  ar- 
tesian wells  in  some  sedtions  is  phenomenal,  and  they 
prove  a  valuable  acquisition  in  irrigation  advancement 
where  artesian  basins  exist  not  too  far  from  the  sur- 
face. A  very  good  well,  suitable  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses, is  to  be  seen  in  Fig.  93. 

The  cost  of  an  artesian  well  not  over  five  hundred 
feet  deep  ought  not  to  exceed  one  dollar  a  foot,  includ- 
ing casing,  and  contradlors  will  do  the  work  for  this 
sum.  The  cost  of  sinking  generally  increases  more 
rapidly  than  the  depth,  so  that  except  in  cases  of  easy 
boring,  or  great  supplies  of  water,  it  will  not  pay  to 
attempt  deep  wells  for  irrigation  purposes.  The  tem- 
perature increases  with  the  depth,  which  is  an  advan- 
tage if  the  water  is  to  be  immediately  applied,  but  the 
water  is  also  more  mineralized,  which  is. a  disadvan- 
tage, or  not,  according  to  the  charadler  of  the  solids 
present. 


398 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


There  are  three  systems  of  well-boring  employed  in 
artesian  work.  For  shallow  wells  the  spring-pole  is 
the  cheapest  means  as  well  as  the  slowest,  and  is  often 
resorted  to  by  a  farmer  desiring  to  dig  his  own  well  at 
small  expense.    A  more  pretentious  outfit  is  such  an  one 


FIG.  93 — ARTESIAN   WELL. 

as  is  shown  in  Fig.  94.  In  this  machine  the  band- 
wheel  is  turned  by  a  belt  from  the  engine.  When 
drilling  elliptic  gears  revolve,  which  raise  and  lower 
the  drill  as  the  hole  is  deepened.  A  hand-wheel  hav- 
ing a  worm  is  turned  to  unwind  a  rope  on  the  drum 
that  lowers  the  drill.     The  elliptic  gears  are  engaged 


FIG.  94 — ARTESIAN    DRILLING    OUTFIT. 


399 


400  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

to  the  machinery  by  a  fricftion  clutch,  which  can  be 
engaged  or  disengaged  while  the  machinery  is  running 
or  the  tube  is  being  rotated.  A  pump  is  operated  by 
steam,  which  forces  water  down  the  tubing  to  wash  out 
the  cuttings.  Expansion  drills  are,  without  doubt,  the 
best  thing  that  can  possibly  be  used  for  sinking  wells, 
as  they  cut  a  large  hole  below  the  casing,  so  that  the 
casing  can  be  inserted  more  easily  than  can  be  done  by 
any  other  means. 

The  most  substantial  outfit,  and  one  that  must  be 
used  in  very  deep  borings,  is  the  old-fashioned  Penn- 
sylvania oil  derrick.  This  rig  is  of  a  more  permanent 
character  than  the  portable  machine,  and  in  setting  it 
up  the  posts  must  be  well  anchored.  A  walking-beam 
is  necessary,  and  this  is  operated  by  crank  power.  A 
bull-wheel  must  be  set  in  position  to  raise  and  lower 
the  tools,  a  sand-pump  is  necessary,  and  the  drilling  is 
done  by  a  man  who  attends  to  the  temper-screw,  which 
rotates  the  drill-bit  and  prevents  it  from  striking  twice 
in  exadlly  the  same  place. 

The  Uphill  Siphon. — Sometimes  farmers  owning 
water  in  reservoirs  are  desirous  of  using  the  water  in 
places  which  would  necessitate  what  would  be  called 
*  *  draining  uphill. ' '  Provided  the  land  to  be  irrigated 
lies  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  reser- 
voir, this  can  be  performed  without  any  great  effort 
by  using  the  principle  of  the  siphon.  A  tile-layer  once 
agreed  to  drain  a  pond  which  at  that  time  was  full  of 
water,  by  laying  the  tile-drain  from  the  pond  over  the 
hill,  no  attention  being  given  to  the  grade  of  the  drain, 
nor  to  the  fa<5l  that  the  hill  was  three  feet  higher  than 
the  water  in  the  pond.     He  laid  his  line  of  tile  about 


DEVICKS,    APPLIANCKS  AND   CONTRIVANCES.     401 

three  feet  deep  through  the  hill,  or  about  on  a  level 
with  the  water  in  the  pond,  covering  the  tile  thor- 
oughly as  he  went  along  until  he  arrived  at  the  pond. 
To  the  surprise  of  many,  the  water,  which  was  two 
feet  deep  in  the  pond,  all  ran  out.  Another  similar 
proceeding  is  related  of  a  drain  made  by  a  mole 
ditcher,  which  is  forced  through  the  soil  by  a  capstan. 
The  plow  or  mole  was  set  in  at  the  pond  and  run  over 
the  hill,  the  water  following  behind.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  all  of  the  water  was  taken  out  of  the  pond. 
The  drains  were  pradlically  siphons,  and  when  com- 
pleted were  full  of  water,  so  that  they  adled  as  siphons 
as  long  as  the  water-supply  lasted.  When  once  empty 
their  acflion  ceased  and  could  not  be  brought  about 
again  unless  the  drains  were  filled  with  water,  which 
of  course  could  not  be  done.  These  examples  and 
others  which  have  come  under  our  notice,  show  that 
under  •  certain  conditions  tile-drains  can  be  made  to 
operate  very  much  as  tight  pipes.  We  observe,  how- 
ever, that  for  all-round  drainage  purposes  tiles  must 
operate  freely,  without  being  forced,  except  for  flush- 
ing in  flood- times,  when  we  may  expe<5l  to  see  tile 
lines  crowded  beyond  their  capacity  for  good  drainage 
purposes. 

The  Siphon  Elevator. — This  contrivance  is  com- 
posed of  two  pipes  of  unequal  diameter — a  receiver 
and  a  regulator.  In  the  interior  of  the  receiver  a  clack- 
valve  is  placed,  so  as  to  cut  off,  intermittingly,  the  flow 
of  water  into  the  regulator,  and  above  it  is  a  puppet- 
valve  maintained  in  its  place  by  a  spiral  spring.  A 
lever  carrying  a  counterweight  is  attached  rigidly  to 
the  axis  of  the  clack-valve,  causing  it  to  open.     The 


402  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

regulator  is  formed  of  a  cast-iron  drum,  having  thin 
corrugated  heads.  At  the  bottom  of  the  suction-pipe 
is  a  check- valve,  which  allows  the  ingress  of  the  water 
but  prevents  the  escape.  At  or  near  the  bottom  of  the 
discharge  pipe  is  a  stop-cock.  The  siphon  elevator  is 
filled  with  water  the  first  time  through  the  orifice, 
which  is  then  closed  by  a  screw-cap. 

Its  operation  is  as  follows :  By  opening  the  stop- 
cock in  the  pipe,  the  water  in  the  siphon  is  submitted 
to  atmospheric  pressure,  with  which  it  seeks  equilib- 
rium. Therefore,  as  it  falls  in  one  pipe  it  ascends  in 
the  other  pipe  and  penetrates  into  the  receiver,  where, 
meeting  the  open  check-valve,  it  forces  the  same  for- 
ward and  closes  it.  Its  exit  being  thus  cut  off,  the 
water  by  its  momentum  raises  the  puppet-valve  and 
escapes  through  the  opening,  whence  it  runs  off"  in  a 
reservoir  or  other  receptacle.  During  the  time  the 
regulator  partially  empties  into  the  pipe,  causing  a 
partial  vacuum  and  a  depression  of  the  corrugated 
heads ;  but  the  pressure  upon  the  clack-valve  mean- 
while diminishes,  allowing  it  to  be  thrown  open  by  the 
weight  on  the  level,  so  that  the  water  immediately  fills 
the  regulator  again.  The  corrugated  heads  assume 
their  original  positions,  and  the  same  phenomena  take 
place  again  in  a  very  brief  period  of  time,  varying 
from  four  hundred  to  four  hundred  and  fifty  a  minute. 
The  vibrations  insure  the  continuity  of  the  movement, 
causing  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  water  from  the  reser- 
voir over  the  puppet -valve.  This  elevator  will  lift 
water  eighteen  feet  in  high  altitudes  and  thirty  feet  at 
sea-level,  the  difference  being  in  the  natural  atmos- 
pheric pressure.      The  elevator  costs  a  few  hundred 


DEVICES,    APPLIANCES  AND   CONTRIVANCES.     403 


dollars,  and  may  be  used  in  streams,  wells,  or  reser- 
voirs. 

The  Bucket  Elevator. — This  arrangement  is 
calculated  to  raise  water  from  a  stream  by  the  force  of 
the  current,  but  the  writer  does  not  accord  to  it  all  the 
great  things  claimed  by  the  inventor,  Ira  J.  Paddock, 
of  Hemingford,  Nebraska.  The  device  is  crudely 
sketched  in  Fig.  95.  According  to  this  plan,  two  up- 
right posts  are  to  be  driven  a  few  rods  apart  on  the 
farther  bank  of  the 
stream,  and  two  or 
more  on  the  nearer 
side,  at  least  one 
being  far  enough  up 
the  slope  to  be  be- 
yond the  reservoir. 
To  the  tops  of  the 
posts  are  fastened, 
by  short  ropes,  pul- 
ley-blocks, through 
which  is  rove  a  taut 

endless  rope  belt.  This  should  be  two  feet  above 
the  ground,  and  should  run  quite  a  distance  length- 
wise over  the  stream,  the  latter  adjustment  being 
effedled  by  giving  enough  length  to  the  fastenings 
of  the  pulleys  to  the  two  posts  on  the  farther  bank. 

The  pulleys  are  so  designed  that  drag-cords  knotted 
to  and  hanging  from  the  moving  belt-rope  will  pass 
them  without  any  trouble.  Then  to  the  rope  are  fas- 
tened a  lot  of  boxes,  or  buckets,  which  perform  double 
duty  in  carrying  water  and  generating  power.  They 
would  be  full  going  uphill,  their  weight  being  thensus- 


FIG.  95 — BUCKET   ELEVATOR. 


404  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

tained  by  two  wheels  running  on  the  ground,  and  the 
belt-rope  merely  hauling  them.  A  bit  of  plank  above 
the  reservoir  would  come  in  contadl  with  a  valve  in  the 
bottom  of  each  box  as  it  arrives,  thus  discharging  the 
contents,  so  that  a  procession  of  empty  boxes  would  be 
going  down  the  slope.  These  would  nearly  overcome 
the  weight  of  the  boxes,  but  not  the  water  going  up. 
Of  course,  there  is  some  loss  through  fricflion.  Mr. 
Paddock  aims  to  get  enough  power  for  hauling  from 
the  pull  of  the  stream  upon  those  boxes  which  are  float- 
ing in  the  water,  and  if  the  length  of  the  stream  section 
of  the  belt-rope  is  great  enough  in  proportion  to  the 
climb  up  the  hill  the  plan  ought  to  work.  He  would 
thus  have  an  automatic  machine  working  something 
like  a  grain  elevator. 

W.  W.  Allen,  of  Centerville,  South  Dakota,  has 
rigged  up  a  contrivance  for  elevating  water  from  a 
river  to  irrigate  his  fields.  He  has  had  a  lot  of  gal- 
vanized iron  buckets  made,  holding  about  five  gallons 
each,  which  are  attached  to  a  large  belt  running  over 
pulleys,  it  being  operated  by  a  small  horse-power.  He 
has  ditches  running  from  the  river,  so  that  he  can  run 
the  water  very  readily  over  his  entire  field. 

The  Canvas  Dam. — Of  the  home-made  devices 
for  saving  labor  to  the  irrigation  farmer,  the  canvas 
apron,  which  is  capitally  illustrated  in  Fig.  96,  is  one 
worthy  of  special  attention.  The  advantages  of  using 
canvas  instead  of  earth  for  lateral  dams  are  that  it 
saves  time  and  labor  and  affords  complete  security 
against  the  breaking  away  of  the  water  during  the 
absence  of  the  irrigator.  It  also  obviates  the  necessity 
for  mutilating  the  sides  of  the  laterals  for  earth  with 


DKVICKS,    APPI.IANCKS   AND   CONTRIVANCES.      405 

which  to  build  the  dams,  which  is  a  point  of  impor- 
tance to  farmers  who  take  pride  in  keeping  their  ditches 
in  good  condition.  The  materials  for  a  common  apron, 
such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  96,  aside  from  the  canvas,  are 
a  piece  of  scantling  seven  feet  long,  two  laths,  a  bit  of 
sheet  iron,  a  piece  of  rope  and  a  few  short  nails.  The 
canvas  should  be  twelve-ounce,  and  for  fifty-inch 
ditches  and  upward  should  be  sixty  inches  in  width, 
so  as  to  afford  ample  protedlion  for  the  sides  of  the 
ditch.  Nail  the  scantling  to  the  canvas  through  the 
lath,  and  to  the  bottom  of  the  apron  fasten  in  the  same 
way  a  piece  of  i  x 
3,  fifteen  inches  in  CI 
length.  Put  a  rope 
handle  in  the  scant- 
ling, and  a  strong 
wire  staple  in  the 
piece  fastened  to  the 
bottom  of  the  apron. 
When  set,  one  end  of 
the  brace  engage3 
this  staple  and  the  other  end  the  rope  handle.  For 
laterals  of  ordinary  depth  the  apron  should  be  three 
feet  long,  to  allow  the  canvas  to  lie  on  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  for  a  few  inches  behind  the  staple;  otherwise 
the  water  will  cut  under  and  escape.  Make  the  brace 
similar  to  the  one  shown  in  the  sketch,  and  cut  to 
suitable  length  to  allow  the  canvas  to  lie  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ditch. 

The  Tri-Lateral  Canvas  Dam. — It  will  be  seen 
that  the  essential  feature  of  this  dam  will  admit  of 
varied  construcftion  in  its  attachments.     A  cheap  and 


FIG.  96 — THE   APRON    DAM. 


406  IRRIGATION  FARMING. 

simple  method  of  construdlion  would  be  to  nail  one  of 
the  three  borders  to  a  pole,  and  make  a  loop,  by  means 
of  a  stout  cord,  in  the  opposite  comer.  A  better  con- 
stm(5lion,  however,  is  recommended.  Seled:  a  stout 
stick  of  hard  wood,  or  good  pine,  2x4  and  six  feet 
long,  bore  a  one-half  inch  hole  through  the  center  of  the 
larger  diameter  about  one  foot  from  the  two  ends,  and 
make  a  wide  saw-cut  between  and  conne(5ling  the  two 
holes.  The  cut  may  be  started  with  a  keyhole  saw. 
Make  the  sides  of  equal  length,  about  four  feet  and 
four  inches.  Hem  the  edges  so  as  to  admit  the  pas- 
sage of  a  half-inch  rope  around  the  entire  border  be- 
tween the  two  layers  of  cloth.  To  fasten  the  cloth  to 
the  stick,  pass  one  edge  of  the  canvas  through  the  saw 
kerf  to  the  opposite  edge,  then  thread  the  rope  through 
the  half-inch  holes  in  the  stick  and  around  through  the 
border  of  the  canvas,  remembering  to  pass  the  rope 
through  a  two-inch  iron  ring  at  the  angle  opposite  the 
stick,  for  a  fastener,  or  anchor,  in  the  ditch.  The  two 
ends  of  the  rope  should  be  made  to  meet  about  half-way 
along  the  edge  of  the  stick.  Bolt  or  nail  through  the 
flat  side  of  the  stick  to  prevent  the  sides  from  spread- 
ing and  the  canvas  from  slipping  in  the  kerf.  The 
other  two  edges  should  be  fastened  firmly  to  the  rope 
by  sewing  a  stout  cord  around  the  rope  and  canvas. 
To  make  the  whole  thing  complete,  a  half-inch  rod  of 
iron  about  three  feet  long  and  sharpened  at  one  end  is 
provided,  to  pass  through  the  iron  ring  at  the  point  of 
the  canvas.  The  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  97.  In  use, 
the  ends  of  the  stick  rest  upon  the  banks  of  the  lateral, 
the  iron  rod  through  the  ring  with  the  top  slanting  in 
the  diredlion  of  the  water-source,  and  the  sharpened 


DKVICKS,    APPI.IANCKS  AND   CONTRIVANCES.     407 


end  thrust  to  a  good  depth  in  the  earth  at  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch. 

The  author  has  used — many  years  ago,  however — a 
metalHc  dam  consisting  of  a  sheet  of  galvanized  iron, 
about  thirty  inches  long  and  fifteen  inches  wide,  and 
having  two  rounded  corners.  There  was  an  aperture 
four  by  ten  inches  square  in  the  center  for  the  water  to 
flow  through.  When  the  gate  was  in  position  the  flow 
of  water  through  the  aperture  was  regulated  by  a 
sliding  adjustable 
gate,  made  also  of 
galvanized  iron, 
easily  moved  up  or 
down  by  hand. 
The  dam  was  set 
in  position  across  a 
lateral  by  crowd- 
ing its  sharp  edges 
down  into  the  soil 
to  the  proper  depth, 
thus  forming  a 
check  to  the  flow  of  the  water  in  the  lateral  except  as 
it  passed  through  the  sliding  gate. 

The  Witcher  dam  is  a  patented  improvement  over 
the  apron  and  diaper  sheets.  It  is  composed  of  a  large 
piece  of  canvas  secured  on  one  edge  to  a  beam  or  pole 
which  spans  the  ditch.  The  side  edges  are  laid  on  the 
banks,  while  the  lower  edge  lies  across  the  bottom  of 
the  ditch  or  canal.  The  front  is  adjustably  looped  by  a 
rope  in  the  middle,  regulating  the  water  to  a  predeter- 
mined stage,  and  causing  it  to  pass  through  the  branch 
ditch  or  canal.     The  main  pressure  is  supported  by 


FIG.  97 — HUNTLEY    DAM. 


4o8 


IRRIGATION   FAI^MING. 


?t^nc>'i'>rs  or  stay -braces  connedled  with  the  beam,  as 
showu  lii  Fig.  98.  A  flap  is  attached  to  the  apron 
under  openings  made  just  under  the  pole  on  the  up- 
stream side  in  such  a  way  that  the  weight  of  the  water 
will  hold  it  in  position  and  allow  the  desired  amount  of 
water  to  pass  through. 

The  Van  Horn  Tap  Gate. — This  is  the  inven- 
tion of  J.  A.  Van  Horn,  of  Canon  City,  Colorado,  and 
is  not  patented.  It  may,  therefore,  be  used  by  any 
one  who  irrigates  land  through  laterals.     The  various 


FIG.  Q» — THE    VVITCHER    CANVAS    DAM. 


forms  of  its  construdlion  are  shown  in  Fig.  99.  The 
design.  A,  shows  a  plain  box  made  by  nailing  four 
boards  opposite  each  other,  perfectly  square  on  the 
front  end.  B  represents  A  with  four  boards  on  the 
outside,  breaking  joints,  three  of  the  outside  boards 
extending  forward  of  the  inside  box,  which  makes  a 
box,  or  pipe,  stronger  than  if  made  of  two-inch  lumber, 
having  free  passage  for  water.  For  tapping  reservoirs 
and  main  ditches  under  high  pressure  put  a  gasket  on 
the  end  of  the  inside  box,  thus  making  it  absolutely 
water-tight.     C  needs  no  explanation  other  than  that 


DEVICES,    APPIylANCES  AND   CONTRIVANCES.     409 


the  wings  need  not  be  more  than  one-half  as  wide  as 
drawn,  and  should  also  extend  under  the  bottom.  For 
variations  make  B  with  only  three  outside  boards,  or 
make  the  outside  jacket  to  extend  only  about  one  foot 
on  the  first  box,  j  ust  sufl&cient 
to  hold  the  gate  in  position. 

Simple  Grade  Levels. 
— A  cheap  and  accurate  lev- 
eling instrument  and  a  tar- 
get or  sighting- rod,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  100,  can  be 
made  by  any  one  with  a  little 
ingenuity.  This  is  simply 
a  sharp  shaft  or  stake,  B, 
with  cross-bar,  A,  bolted 
firmly  to  it.  C  is  a  rubber 
tube  attached  to  the  staff  and 
passing  up  through  a  hole  at 
each  end  of  the  cross-bar. 
At  each  upper  end  of  this 
rubber  tube  is  a  glass  tube, 
say  four  inches  long,  with 
the  rubber  tubing  stretched 
or  sprung  around  it  so  as 
not  to  leak.  Colored  water  fills  the  tube,  and  in 
leveling  it  is  only  necessary  to  sight  across  the  tops  of 
the  colored  water  to  the  target  and  take  levels  just  as 
with  a  $25  surveyor's  level. 

For  short  distances  it  is  accurate  enough.  The 
glass  tubes  may  be  corked  tight  about  an  inch  above 
the  colored  water  to  prevent  its  escape  when  the  level 
is  carried.     Of  course  a  carpenter's  spirit-level,  instead 


FIG.  99 — THE   VAN   HORN 
TAP    GATE. 


4IO 


IRRIGATION    FARMING. 


of  the  cross-bar  and  tubing,  may  be  screwed  to  the  bar, 
and  sights  may  be  attached  to  each  end  of  the  level  half 
an  inch  above  the  top  surface,  or  even  small,  flat  phials, 
four  inches  long  or  so,  can  be  used  instead.  Two  pegs, 
four  inches  in  hight,  with  holes  bored  through  near  the 
top,  may  be  driven  into  the  bar  to  be  thus  used  for 
sighting.  For  the  sighting-rod  or  flag  use  a  two-inch 
batten  ten  feet  long,  planed  and 
plainly  marked  in  feet  and  inches, 
from  the  bottom  up.  Then  with  a 
cheap  tape  line,  two  rods  or  half  a 
chain  long,  measure  the  distances, 
take  levels,  and  set  the  depth  stakes 
for  digging  the  ditch. 

A  Ditch  Cleaner.— A  home- 
made affair  consists  of  the  forks  of 
a  tree  cut  ten  feet  long,  on  one 
side  of  which  is  bolted  a  share  of 
sheet  iron.  The  arrangement  is 
exhibited  in  Fig.  loi.  The  plow 
is  heavily  weighted,  and  can  be 
pulled  through  irrigation  ditches, 
canals,  or  creeks,  by  horses.  Two 
men,  with  four  horses,  can  do  the 
work  of  fifty  ditch  men  with  shovels.  The  pole  is 
used  to  raise  the  front  of  the  ditcher  when  necessary. 
A  man  swings  his  weight  upon  the  back,  and  thereby 
lifts  the  front  or  point  from  the  mud.  A  big  hook 
is  bolted  on  the  top,  to  which  the  double-trees  are 
attached  by  a  long  chain.  In  ordinary  work  two 
horses  can  pull  the  ditcher,  but  in  most  cases,  where 
the  ditches  are  filled  with  mud  and  gravel,  two  teams 


FIG.   lOO — A  HOME- 
MADE SPIRIT-LEVEL. 


DEVICES,,  APPI^IANCES  AND   CONTRIVANCES.     411 


KIG.   lOI — A    DITCH    CLEANER. 


are  necessary.  To  strengthen  the  plow  and  make 
it  more  substantial,  braces  of  iron  could  be  put  in, 
extending  from  the  middle  cross-beam  to  each  runner, 

as  in  a  sleigh.  In 
construdling  new 
canals  it  has  no 
equal,  considering 
the  expense  of 
making.  There  is 
no  patent  on  the  idea.  Some  6x8  good  oak  timbers 
will  make  a  better  ditcher  than  an  old  tree. 

A  Tandem  Hitcher. — A  useful  device  for  work- 
ing two  horses  tandem  in  a  ditch  is  shown  in  Fig.  102. 
It  is  made  by  attaching  two  pulleys  for  inch  rope  to 
opposite  ends  of  a  double-thick  singletree.  Two  one- 
inch  ropes,  each  about  ten  feet  long,  are  used  with 
an  ordinary  single- 
tree hook  on  each 
end  of  the  ropes. 
Fasten  one  end  of 
each  rope,  A  A, 
to  the  trace-eyes  of 
the  rear  horse,  and 
to  the  front  end  of 
each  rope,  B  B,  to 
the  trace-eyes  of 
the  lead  horse.  As 
shown  in  the  illustration,  a  knot,  C  C,  is  made  in 
each  rope  a  little  in  front  of  the  pulleys,  to  prevent  the 
rear  horse  from  coming  too  close  to  the  lead  horse. 

A  Water-Gate.— Of  all  the  flood-gates,  patented 
or  otherwise,  there  is  but  one  that  is  worth  building. 


FIG.   102 — A    GARDEN    HITCHER. 


412 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


This  gate  is  called  the  Carlisle  gate,  as  a  man  by  that 
name  invented  it.  Suppose  a  canal  is  sixteen  feet  wide; 
drive  three  good  six-inch  posts  into  the  bottom  of  the 
stream — one  on  each  side  and  one  in  the  middle;  make 
a  water-gate  just  as  if  intended  to  swing  it  to  a  pole 
the  old-fashioned  way.  Then  fasten  the  gate  to  the 
stakes  at  the  bottom  with  strap-hinges — or  if  cheap- 
ness is  an  item,  with  wires  ;  then  prop  it  up  so  that  it 
will  stand  eredt  against  the  common  stream,  but  so  that 


FIG.  103 — WATER-GATE, 
STANDING    POSITION. 


FIG.   104 — WATER-GATE, 
WHILE    WATER    IS    HIGH. 


high  water  will  wash  it  down  where  it  will  lie,  letting 
the  drift  go  over,  but  will  not  carry  the  gate  away. 
The  stakes  or  posts  at  the  bottom  should  be  driven 
clear  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  or  the  water 
will  make  a  whirl  around  them  and  finally  dig  them 
up.  If  the  stream  is  large  two  or  more  gates  can  be 
put  in,  in  the  same  way.  After  the  storm  is  over  and 
the  water  recedes  the  gate  is  raised. 

The  Transplanting  Machine. — This  is  a  sort  of 
an  irrigation  system  on  wheels,  and  while  it  was  origi- 
nally invented  for  planting  tobacco,  it  serves  as  well  for 
sweet  potatoes,  tomatoes,  and  cabbage.  The  machine 
is  not  unlike  a  mower  in  general  appearance  and  costs 
$70.     It  is  drawn  by  two  horses.     The  field  is  previ-^ 


DEVICES,    APPLIANCES  AND   CONTRIVANCES.     413 

ously  prepared  by  a  double  cultivator,  which  turns  the 
earth  into  ridges  of  two  feet  level  surface  and  nearly 
four  feet  apart.  The  planter  is  then  driven  in  the  fur- 
rows between  the  ridges.  Two  boys  are  seated  on  the 
rear  of  the  machine,  under  a  shady  canopy,  each  with 
a  pile  of  plants  at  his  side.  As  the  machine  is  driven 
along  a  sort  of  a  small  plow  called  a  marker  opens  a 
space  in  the  ridge  into  which  the  boys  place  the  plants, 
alternating  with  each  other,  but  so  rapid  is  the  move- 
ment that  each  boy  is  kept  busy  placing  plants  in  the 
ground.  As  the  plant  is  thus  placed,  a  stream  of  water 
is  let  out  of  the  barrel  carried  under  the  seat  of  the  driver, 
which  moistens  the  plant.  The  roots  of  the  plant 
are  then  covered  with  soil  by  two  small  shares  which 
follow  and  close  the  earth  over  the  ridge,  as  when  the 
cultivator  left  it.  The  valve  letting  out  the  jet  of 
water  from  the  barrel  is  operated  by  a  cam  connected 
with  one  of  the  wheels.  The  plants  are  placed  twenty- 
three  inches  apart,  and  the  distance  between  the  rows 
is  three  feet  nine  inches.  One  of  the  advantages  of 
this  machine  is  that  the  roots  of  the  plants  are  not 
doubled  up  as  in  the  stuffing  hand  process,  but  the 
chief  advantage  is  the  saving  of  labor.  One  machine 
operated  by  a  driver  and  two  skilful  boys  can  do  the 
work  of  twelve  men.  The  machine  will  plant  ten 
acres  in  a  day  and  a  half. 

Watering-Cart. — Where  a  small  area  of  valuable 
crops  is  to  be  covered  only  occasionally  in  a  season, 
very  satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained  with  a  water- 
ing-cart. The  author  has  a  friend  in  Colorado  who 
used  one  and  was  much  pleased  with  it.  He  had  an 
orchard  of  over  one  hundred  acres,  for  which  he  made 


414 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  get  water  for  less  than  $2.50 
an  acre.  He  then  put  in  a  gasoline  engine,  pumping 
15,000  gallons  in  two  hours  against  a  sixty-foot  head. 
He  irrigated  his  trees  with  the  cart,  having  to  convey 
the  water  as  far  as  half  a  mile.  He  employed  five 
men,  gave  each  tree  fifteen  gallons  of  water,  and  did 
the  entire  job  at  a  cost  of  $97  for  labor,  gasoline  oil, 
and  all  incidentals.  He  kept  a  stri(5l  account  of  the 
expenses  for  his  own  satisfacftion,  and  states  that  the 
cost  of  gasoline  for  the  job  was  $3.80.  He  simply 
hauled  the  water  in  the  cart 
to  a  tree  where  a  border  had 
previously  been  dug,  and 
turned  in  enough  water  from 
the  tank-cart  to  fill  the  border. 
Liquid  Manuring.— The 
utilization  of  liquid  manure 
on  all  farms  is  an 
important  con- 
sideration. On 
rolling  land, 
such  as  found  on 
many  farms,  it  is 
entirely  feasible 
to  build  a  cistern 
or  reservoir  in  a 
side-hill,  as  shown  in  Fig.  105,  to  which  the  liquid  may 
be  conveyed  by  pipes  or  troughs  from  the  barn,  and  from 
which  it  may  be  let  into  a  water-tight  vehicle  through 
a  rude  flood-gate  or  large  pipe-faucet  by  gravity,  the 
wagon  standing  below  the  level  of  the  reservoir.  Nor 
will  this  method  be  made  less  valuable  by  clogging  in 


FIG.   105 — CISTERN   AND    LIQUID 
MANURE    SPREADER. 


DEVICES,  APPI^IANCES  AND   CONTRIVANCES.      415 

passing  the  fluid  from  the  cistern  to  the  wagon,  because 
the  need  of  pumps  and  power  is  dispensed  with. 
Attached  to  the  cart  should  be  a  liquid-spreader  such 
as  adopted  on  most  city  street-sprinkling  wagons.  It 
is  merely  a  semicircular  trough  at  the  end  of  a  pipe, 
through  which  the  water  flows.  On  being  freed  from 
the  pipe  the  water  is  forced  downward,  then  it  is  spread 
in  a  thin  sheet  regularly  over  an  even  area.  Straw, 
sawdust,  and  other  refuse  passes  through.  Such  a 
cart  is  useful  also  in  watering  crops  in  dry  weather. 
Filled  with  water  it  may  be  left  in  the  center  of  the 
lawn  or  garden,  and  the  whirling  lawn-sprinkler  and 
hose  attached  to  it  play  all  night  over  the  grass,  straw- 
berries, etc.  The  advantages  it  presents  are  numerous. 
It  may  be  only  partly  filled  with  the  liquid  fertilizer 
where  the  stuff  is  too  strong,  and  its  contents  diluted 
with  water  before  distribution.  This  plan  is  often 
advantageous  where  the  liquid  is  hauled  up  a  steep 
hill.  We  can  see  where  this  cistern  could  be  made  to 
discharge  its  contents  into  a  lateral  of  running  irriga- 
tion water,  and  the  manure  carried  diredl  to  the  land 
in  this  way.  Some  such  scheme  will  have  to  be  de- 
vised. 

Manure  Vat. — An  excellent  fertilizer  vat  or  set- 
tler used  successfully  by  many  irrigation  gardeners 
consists  of  a  barrel,  hogshead  or  box  sunk  in  the 
ground  at  the  highest  point  reached  by  an  irrigating 
ditch  on  the  garden  plat.  This  vat  can  be  made  of  old 
slabs  if  nothing  better  is  available  and  will  last  for 
many  years.  It  should  be  filled  with  well-rotted 
manure  of  any  kind,  having  some  hay,  corn-stalks,  or 
brush  mixed  to  keep  it  from  becoming  solid.     The 


41 6  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

water  can  be  turned  in  from  the  irrigating  ditch  and 
left  to  fill  up  the  vat  and  flow  out  from  a  two-inch 
auger-hole  near  the  top.  Sometimes  the  vats  are  made 
large  enough  to  hold  two  or  three  wagon-loads  of 
manure,  and  are  filled  with  water  and  left  to  stand  a 
few  days  before  the  liquid  fertilizing  element  is  con- 
veyed by  ditch  or  otherwise  to  the  growing  plants. 
These  vats  may  be  filled  and  emptied  as  desired  and 
fresh  fertilizers  be  given  the  plants.  There  is  no  dan- 
ger of  conveying  the  odor  or  contaminating  influences 
of  the  liquid  to  the  vegetables. 

The  Corrugated  Roller.— One  of  the  most  use- 
ful machines  for  preparing  a  seed-bed  in  irrigated  land 
is  the  corrugator  invented  by  Eugene  H.  Grubb,  of 
Carbondale,  Colorado,  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  io6. 
There  is  no  patent  on  the  machine  and  any  one  may 
make  it.  The  main  part  consists  of  a  drum  or  roller 
made  in  two  sedlions  to  toggle  like  a  disc  harrow. 
This  cylinder  should  be  of  cast  iron,  but  may  be  made 
from  wood  and  weighted  from  560  to  750  pounds  while 
in  operation.  It  should  be  three  feet  or  so  in  diameter. 
The  first  se(5lion,  or  the  one  at  the  left,  is  thirty-four 
inches  long  and  has  but  one  rim  or  corrugate,  while 
the  other  has  two  and  is  thirty-nine  inches  long.  This 
is  made  necessary  to  facilitate  turning.  The  corru- 
gates are  five  inches  wide  at  the  base  and  have  a  four- 
inch  flange  which  leaves  a  demarkation  of  similar  depth 
in  the  soil.  A  half- worn  wagon  tire  should  face  each 
wooden  corrugate  to  keep  it  from  wearing.  A  spring 
seat  is  bolted  on  the  rear  of  the  frame,  and  in  front 
of  each  corrugate  depending  from  the  frame  is  a  shovel- 
plow  made  from  ^-inch  by  3-inch  iron  kept  in  place 


^ 


41 8  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

by  long  stirrups  made  from  %  round  iron.  These  are 
counec5led  with  a  tilting  lever  so  as  to  raise  them  in 
turning.  The  rollers  ac5l  on  their  axle  independent  of 
the  frame  and  the  team  is  attached  to  a  strong  pole. 
The  advantage  of  this  machine  is  that  it  firms  the  seed- 
bed and  at  the  same  time  makes  small  furrows  for  the 
irrigating  water.  This  prevents  flooding  and  baking, 
and  permits  the  water  to  seep  through  from  one  corru- 
gate to  the  other  without  injuring  the  surface.  In  a 
meadow  these  corrugations  will  remain  for  years  and 
do  not  interfere  with  harvesting  machines. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
SUBIRRIGATION    AND    SUBSOILING. 


SUBIRRIGATION  is  more  of  a  theory  than  a  con- 
,  dition,  and  until  it  is  better  comprehended  and 
^^M  more  thoroughly  tested,  the  writer  does  not 
care  to  uphold  it  as  a  system  worthy  of  general 
adoption.  There  is  no  doubt  that  subirrigation  has 
many  advantages,  especially  in  the  way  of  economizing 
water,  but  the  original  cost  of  an  underground  pipe 
system  is  so  expensive  that  many  men  are  deterred 
from  adopting  it.  A  rough  estimate  would  make  a 
gallon  of  water  sufficient  to  irrigate  a  cubic  foot  of 
ground,  and  this  is  a  much  higher  duty  of  water  than 
can  be  obtained  by  the  open  trench  system. 

This  method  is  probably  corredl  in  principle,  and 
there  are  authorities  who  claim  that  it  is  most  economic, 
efFedtive  and  wholesome.  The  prime  aim,  under  any 
system  of  cultivation,  or  irrigation,  should  be  to  stimu- 
late and  induce  capillary  a<5tion  in  every  possible  way. 
It  is  a  fa<5l,  conceded  by  every  observing  cultivator  of 
the  soil,  that  the  finest  and  best  crops  and  the  most 
satisfadlory  results  in  every  way  are  obtained  from 
those  lands  where  there  is  free,  constant  and  uniform 
moisture  diffused  from  below.  Soils  differ  with  respecft 
to  the  workings  of  capillary  attraction,  but  it  is  more 
or  less  potent  in  all  lands.  The  diffusion  of  moisture 
in  this  way  will  depend  mainly  upon  two  conditions — 

419 


420  IRRIGATION    FARMING. 

the  supply  received  or  contained  in  the  underlying 
strata,  and  the  chara<5ler  of  the  soil  operated  upon. 
Two  other  points  closely  allied  to  these  are  the  storage 
capacity  underneath  and  the  manner  of  cultivation. 

Farmers  should  make  themselves  most  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  subsoil  on  their  estates  down  to  a 
depth  of  at  least  four,  but  preferably  six  or  eight  feet. 
Similarly,  no  irrigator  should  be  ignorant  of  the  time 
or  amount  of  water  required  to  wet  the  soil  to  a  given 
depth.  A  definite  knowledge  of  the  rapidity  with 
which  irrigation  water  penetrates  downward  and  later- 
ally in  the  soil  should  form  a  part  of  the  mental  equip- 
ment of  every  irrigator,  particularly  in  arranging  for 
subirrigation.  Supposing  the  moisture  to  have 
reached  the  depths  of  the  soil,  whether  from  rains  or 
from  irrigation,  it  is  essential  that  proper  means  be  em- 
ployed for  retaining  it  in  the  land  and  especially  to 
prevent  evaporation.  As  has  been  set  forth  quite 
elaborately  in  this  work  in  the  chapter  on  soils,  this  is 
best  accomplished  by  a  dust  mulch  on  the  surface  of 
loose,  well-tilled  soil.  Where  this  principle  is  well 
understood,  it  is  considered  that  a  surface  layer  of 
three  inches  or  so  in  thickness  is  sufl&cient  for  effedlive 
protedlion,  and  this  rule  applies  in  subirrigation  quite 
as  materially  as  when  water  is  applied  by  the  various 
surface  methods. 

The  difference  between  water  applied  to  the  surface 
by  irrigation  and  that  applied  below  the  surface  eigh- 
teen inches  to  two  feet,  is  that  in  the  former  case  there 
is  much  evaporation  after  the  water  is  applied,  and  the 
air  has  not  free  access  to  the  soil  and  roots  of  the  plants 
for  a  day  or  two.     In  the  latter  the  subsoil  is  saturated 


SUBIRRIGATION  AND  SUBSOILING.  42 1 

thoroughly,  the  plant  is  never  deprived  of  air  and  the 
surface  soil  is  kept  loose  and  fine,  and  there  is  com- 
paratively small  waste,  as  the  water  rises  slowly  when 
the  cultivated  soil  is  reached  ;  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  is  thus  more  uniform,  and  the  growth  of  the  plant 
is  not  varied  by  changes  in  supply  of  moisture,  air, 
and  temperature.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment 
that  subirrigated  soil  is  warmer  than  that  which 
has  been  surface  irrigated,  and  that  the  atmosphere 
around  plants  to  the  hight  of  twelve  inches  is  warmer 
by  subirrigation  than  by  surface  irrigation.  Instead 
of  dilating  at  length  upon  the  pro  and  co7i  advan- 
tages of  subirrigation,  the  writer  prefers  to  give  a 
description  of  the  various  methods  of  applying  water 
in  this  way,  and  allow  the  reader  to  form  his  own 
conclusions  as  to  the  utility  of  the  system  considered 
as  a  whole. 

Subbing. — This  is  the  most  natural  method  of  sub- 
irrigation  and  it  is  practiced  without  resorting  to  pipes 
or  artificial  waterways.  It  is  simply  seepage,  and  is 
possible  only  on  sloping  land  having  a  clay  subsoil 
within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface,  and  is  quite  com- 
monly seen  in  the  San  I<uis  valley  of  Colorado. 
Wherever  irrigation  is  necessary  for  the  produdlion  of 
a  crop,  it  will  be  found  of  great  advantage  at  the  time 
of  seeding  to  make  ditches  and  furrows  at  short  inter- 
vals, and  then  to  so  check  the  water  in  these  ditches 
that  it  may  stand  in  small  bodies  at  a  level  above  the 
general  surface  of  the  ground  to  be  irrigated.  If  the 
water  is  held  constantly  in  these  small  reservoirs  during 
the  growing  season,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  flood 
the  ground  so  often  ;    and  if  the  soil   is  sufficiently 


422  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

porous,  it  may  be  possible  to  give  the  crop  all  the 
moisture  needed  without  surface  application. 

If  a  field  has  a  steep  side-hill  slope,  it  is  best  to  bring 
the  water  upon  it  by  a  supply  ditch  on  the  highest 
part,  as  shown  at  a  in  Fig.  107,  and  condudl  it  by  a 
series  of  dams  or  drops,  b  b  b,  io  the  lowest  part  of  the 
field.  Then  run  laterals,  c  c,  from  above  each  drop 
nearly  along  a  contour  or  equal  level-line  on  the  field, 
diking  these  laterals  up  to  keep  the  water  above  acci- 
dental high  places.  These  laterals  should  be  perma- 
nent and  should  be  near  together  at  the  top  of  the 
field,  the  intervals  widening  as  they  near  the  lower 
edge,  as  the  seepage  from  the  upper  laterals  will  neces- 
sarily make  the  ground  more  and  more  moist  toward 
the  lower  edge  of  the  field.  The  field  should  be  made 
as  long  as  possible,  and  the  laterals  should  be  made  as 
near  parallel  as  the  ground  will  permit,  so  as  to  obtain 
as  large  and  regular  an  area  between  the  furrows  as 
possible.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  flood  growing 
crops,  an  opening  can  be  made^  in  these  permanent 
ditches  at  points  where  the  grade-line  intersedls  a  slight 
knoll.  From  these  openings  the  water  should  be  con- 
ducfled  in  zigzag  courses,  in  furrows  prepared  at  the 
time  of  seeding,  thus  preventing  washing,  and  keeping 
the  water  as  much  as  possible  away  from  the  crowns 
of  plants  until  it  soaks  into  the  soil.  A  headgate, 
d  d,  should  be  placed  at  the  source  of  each  of  these  field 
laterals,  and  then  it  is  possible  for  the  farmer  to  so 
regulate  the  supply  in  each  part  of  the  field  that  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  may  be  obtained  at  the  roots  of  every 
plant,  with  very  little  or  no  water  going  to  waste  at  the 
ends  of  the  field  laterals. 


SUBIRRIGATION  AND  SUBSOILING. 


423 


The  Asbestine  System.— If  the  water-supply  be 
Umited,  or  difficult  to  obtain,  this  plan  stands  well  at 
the  head.  It  consists  of  cement  pipes,  generally  three 
inches  in  diameter,  but  varying  from  two  to  four  inches, 
that  are  made  in  a  continuous  line  in  the  bottom  of 
trenches  with  small  openings  at  intervals,  in  which 
wooden  plugs  or  nipples  with  quarter-inch  holes  are 
inserted.     A  modified  form  for  use  in  orchards,  where 


e          d 

.//. 

ft  d.A.d    ,, 

c      d. 

-a 

1 

■6 

1 

■b 

'6 

FIG.   107 — DIAGRAM    OF    SUBIRRIGATED    FIELD. 


the  tree  roots  would  be  likely  to  trouble  by  clogging 
the  holes,  has  square  openings  about  six  by  three 
inches,  over  which  a  piece  of  tile  of  a  size  that  will  fit 
evenly  down  over  the  opening  is  laid.  These  tiles  are 
laid  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  below  the  surface,  and 
although  they  will  work  if  given  considerable  fall,  they 
distribute  the  water  in  a  more  satisfac5lory  manner  if 
they  have  at  best  but  a  slight  and  even  slope.  In  the 
orchards  they  are  laid  between  alternate  rows,  and  the 
holes   are   from   fifteen   to    thirty   feet    apart.      The 


424  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

machine  used  in  laying  this  system  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  25,  Chapter  VIII. 

Another  form  of  tile  consists  of  short  lengths  of 
cement  pipe  made  in  sheet-iron  molds,  which  have 
their  joints  closed  with  cement  when  they  are  laid. 
These  distributing  pipes  are  often  connedled  into  sys- 
tems of  considerable  size  by  being  joined  at  one  end  to 
a  main  supply  pipe,  which  is  generally  of  sheet  iron 
coated  with  asbestos.  Sometimes  what  is  known  as 
laminated  pipe,  which  consists  of  two  thicknesses,  is 
used.  This  may  be  made  of  two  pipes  of  such  a  size 
that  when  placed  one  within  the  other  there  will  be  a 
space  of  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  between  them,  which 
space  is  filled  with  asbestos,  while  the  inner  and  outer 
surfaces  are  coated  with  the  same  material;  or  it  may 
be  made  from  one  piece  of  sheet  iron  rolled  so  that  it 
will  form  a  double  thickness  of  iron.  The  elbows  and 
T's  are  of  iron  laid  in  cement.  When  used  for  irri- 
gating small  fruits  and  vegetables,  the  laterals  are 
placed  twelve  to  twenty  feet  apart  and  the  holes  are 
at  intervals  of  from  six  to  eight  feet. 

Tiling. — Scientists  who  have  given  thought  to  the 
subjec5l  are  agreed  that,  theoretically,  subirrigation  by 
porous  tiles  is  the  ideal  plan.  The  tiles  may  be  made 
porous  by  mixing  sawdust  with  the  mortar,  which  being 
burned  out  in  the  baking  process  leaves  the  tiles 
porous  to  the  exa<5l  degree  desired  and  prepared  for  in 
the  mixing.  The  first  cost  of  laying  a  system  of  pipes 
has  been  estimated  at  $400  an  acre.  The  tiling  has  the 
advantage  of  furnishing  drainage  when  there  is  too 
much  water  in  the  soil.  The  ground  is  first  graded 
and  leveled,  and  a  ditch  is  dug  with  plows  and  spades 


SUBIRRIGATION   AND  SUBSOILING.  425 

every  rod  or  so,  one  foot  wide  and  two  feet  deep.  In 
the  bottom  of  this  ditch  a  row  of  four-inch  drain-tile  is 
laid.  A  line  is  used  to  keep  the  tile  straight  and  true. 
They  are  placed  in  the  ditch  as  if  they  were  intended 
for  draining  the  land. 

Six  inches  fall  for  every  hundred  feet  is  necessary. 
The  dirt  is  placed  around  the  tiles  by  hand,  until  they 
are  sufficiently  firm  so  as  not  to  be  displaced  by  filling 
in  with  plow  and  shovel.  If  the  soil  is  of  a  sandy 
nature,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  piece  of  tin  or  galva- 
nized iron  over  the  joints,  to  prevent  the  sand  from 
filling  in.  The  tile  is  placed  at  least  eighteen  inches 
below  the  surface,  and  is  out  of  reach  of  the  plow. 
The  water  is  brought  to  the  land  by  means  of  a  pipe 
which  is  laid  diredlly  across  the  tile  at  the  highest 
point,  and  a  faucet  is  arranged  so  that  water  may  be 
turned  into  each  line  of  tile  at  the  same  time.  The 
tile  may  be  stopped  at  the  lower  end,  thus  allowing  the 
water  to  seep  out  of  the  joints  until  the  land  is  suffi- 
ciently moist.  Many  persons  would  suppose  that  the 
water  would  descend,  but  it  naturally  rises  to  the  sur- 
face. It  is  essential  that  a  drainage  ditch  should  be 
provided  at  the  lower  end  of  the  field  to  serve  as  an 
outlet  for  the  tiles,  which  should  be  so  arranged  that 
they  can  be  drained  during  the  winter,  as  otherwise 
they  might  be  cracked  by  the  freezing  of  the  water 
that  they  would  contain.  Upon  stiff  soils  with  im- 
pervious hard-pan  the  lines  of  tile  can  be .  placed  con- 
siderably deeper. 

In  all  subirrigation  undertakings  the  first  precau- 
tion is  to  ascertain  whether  the  stru(5lure  of  the  soil 
and  subsoil  is  such  that  this  method  is  prac5licable,  as 


426  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

it  is  useless  expenditure  of  money  to  lay  pipes  where 
the  conditions  are  such  that  the  water  will  not  spread 
laterally  to  the  plants.  In  some  localities  the  subsoil 
is  so  porous  or  gravelly  that  the  water  applied  beneath 
the  surface  sinks  immediately  and  cannot  be  utilized 
by  the  roots  of  any  of  the  plants  except  those  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  source  of  supply.  This  is 
especially  the  case  on  the  bottom  lands  along  streams 
where  the  surface  soil  rests  upon  gravel  or  beds  of 
sand.  Where,  on  the  contrary,  the  subsoil  is  compara- 
tively impervious,  and  above  this  the  stru(5lure  is  such 
that  the  water  is  transmitted  horizontally,  systems  of 
subirrigation  can  be  introduced  to  advantage. 

Different  depths  have  been  tried,  some  being  four- 
teen inches,  others  eighteen,  and  still  others  two  feet 
deep.  Some  difficulty  has  been  found  in  pipes  laid 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  beneath  the  sur- 
face. By  digging  down  it  was  found  that  the  deeper 
pipes  were  placed  so  low  as  to  be  imbedded  in  a 
tenacious  clay  subsoil  through  which  the  water  could 
not  spread  freely.  By  raising  the  pipes  about  six 
inches,  well  above  the  clay,  the  water  percolated 
freely.  For  vegetables  it  has  been  found  that  pipes 
give  the  best  results  when  laid  from  eight  to  ten  feet 
apart,  while  for  orchards  a  single  row  of  pipes  is  suffi- 
cient between  alternate  rows  of  trees,  the  pipes  being 
placed  from  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  depth.  It  has  also 
been  found  that  the  moisture  was  rendered  more  effi- 
cient by  using  fertilizers.  One  of  the  most  common 
mistakes  has  been  in  giving  too  great  slope  or  inclina- 
tion to  the  pipes.  If  laid  on  ground  which  has  decided 
fall  the  water  runs  to  the   lower  end  before  it   can 


SUBIRRIGATION  AND  SUBSOILING.  427 

escape  in  considerable  part  through  the  openings  along 
the  side.  For  this  reason  the  pipes  should  be  laid  very 
nearly  level,  but  if  a  considerable  slope  cannot  be 
avoided  it  has  been  found  best  to  have  cut-offs  in  the 
pipe  every  ten  or  twenty  feet  to  check  the  flow. 

Another  way  is  to  run  the  main  pipe  on  the  down 
grade  and  connedl  this  with  irrigating  pipes  branching 
from  it  with  suitable  valves  or  cut-offs,  so  that  the 
water  can  be  turned  into  the  branches.  The  pre- 
ferred length  of  irrigating  pipe  is  about  200  feet. 
Sometimes  double  T's  are  provided  on  the  main  supply 
pipe  to  connec5t  with  the  pipes  on  each  side.  The 
main  supply  pipe  is  proportioned  according  to  the 
amount  of  water  to  be  carried.  In  general,  for  garden 
and  orchards  it  is  one  and  one- fourth  inches  in 
diameter.  One  style  of  sheet-iron  lateral  pipe  has  an 
open  seam  along  its  length,  and  is  usually  seven-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  although  smaller  sizes  can  be 
used  for  flower  beds.  The  cost  varies  according  to  the 
amount  used,  but  in  one  case  where  three  acres  were 
provided,  two  of  these  in  orchard  and  the  remaining 
acre  devoted  to  potatoes,  watermelons,  and  other 
vegetables,  the  entire  cost  was  $63.  In  this  case  the 
watermelons  alone  paid  the  cost  of  the  pipe.  One  man 
can  lay  3,000  feet  in  a  day  by  covering  with  a  plow. 

In  order  to  subirrigate  a  tra(5l  with  a  windmill,  one 
should  have  a  reservoir  or  tank  that  will  hold  at  least 
800  or  1,000  barrels,  and  unless  one  is  reasonably  sure 
of  sufficient  wind  to  fill  the  tank  within  three  days 
at  all  times  throughout  the  summer,  a  corresponding 
increase  would  be  necessary.  A  reservoir  that  will 
hold  3,000  or  4,000  barrels  would,  in  many  places,  be 


428  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

advisable.  The  amount  of  water  and  the  frequency  of 
application  would  depend  upon  soil  condition  and  the 
chara(5ler  of  the  season,  but  ordinarily  the  application 
of  800  or  1,000  barrels  of  water  to  the  acre  at  intervals 
of  six  or  seven  days  in  spring  and  two  or  three  days 
during  the  hot,  dry  weather  of  summer,  would  prob- 
ably suffice. 

The  Gravel  Trench. — This  plan  is  very  simple 
and  quite  cheap.  Trenches  may  be  dug  six  or  eight 
inches  wide  and  two  feet  deep,  running  with  the  slope 
of  the  land,  and  forty  or  fifty  feet  apart,  connedling  at 
the  upper  end  with  a  head  ditch  somewhat  wider  than 
the  others.  Into  these  trenches  put  six  to  eight  inches 
of  gravel  or  crushed  stone  and  then  fill  with  earth.  If 
for  orchards,  the  trenches  could  be  dug  so  as  to  go 
under  each  row  of  trees  if  the  slope  permitted.  We 
believe  this  plan  will  work  as  well  as  tiling,  and  to 
many  who  are  near  gravel  beds  it  will  be  much  cheaper. 
Any  blossom  rock  or  detached  shale  often  found  on 
plowed  ground  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
cobblestones  or  kidney  rock  would  be  just  the  thing. 
We  believe  a  trench  plow  has  been  invented  for  open- 
ing the  trenches,  and  the  work  ought  to  be  done  late 
in  the  fall  or  during  the  mild  days  of  winter,  when 
nothing  more  urgent  is  pressing.  Brickbats,  such  as 
are  found  around  the  kilns  in  a  brickyard,  could  be 
placed  in  the  trenches  and  would  answer  admirably. 
The  only  expense  conne(5ted  with  the  work  would  be 
that  of  labor,  and  the  experiment  ought  to  pay  well. 

Father  Cole's  Plan.— The  late  Honorable  A.  N. 
Cole,  of  Wellsville,  New  York,  inaugurated  a  system 
of  trench  irrigation  which  proved  quite  a  success  and 


SUBIRRIGATION  AND   SUBSOIIylNG.  429 

elicited  so  much  enthusiasm  from  the  old  gentleman 
that  he  wrote  a  book  on  the  subjedl  in  1885,  and  a  year 
or  two  later  the  author  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting 
Father  Cole  and  personally  examining  his  work  at 
**  The  Home  on  the  Hillside."  His  scheme  was  sub- 
stantially that  described  under  the  preceding  caption, 
and  while  he  put  in  more  time  and  labor  in  the  detail 
and  made  his  trenches  in  a  more  pretentious  way,  he 


FIG.   108 — FATHER    COLE'S    SYSTEM. 

always  said  that  the  extra  work  repaid  him  well.  A 
sectional  view  of  Father  Cole's  works  is  given  in 
Fig.  108. 

In  his  book,  '*  The  New  Agriculture,"  the  follow- 
ing description  appears:  *'  The  land  is  a  hillside,  along 
the  eastern  front  of  which  runs  a  wayside  gutter. 
Parallel  with  this  and  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  apart, 
and  across  the  land  to  its  highest  boundary,  he  caused 
a  series  of  trenches  two  and  a  half  feet  wide  and  four 
and  a  half  to  five  feet  deep  to  be  dug,  and  filled  to 
within  eighteen  inches  of  the  surface  with  coarse  large 
stones,  covered  with  Joose  flat  stones,  for  subterranean 
water  reservoirs ;  these  were  conne(5ted  by  numerous 
shallow  and  smaller  trenches  partially  filled  with  small 
stones  at  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  surface,  de- 


430  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

signed  to  carry  off  all  surface  water."  The  water 
which  naturally  fell  from  the  heavens  was  caught  in 
these  trenches  and  filtered  one  from  the  other  in  such 
a  way  as  to  render  the  subsoil  constantly  moist  and 
friable.  Mr.  Cole  said:  "The  advantage  of  such  a 
system  for  market  gardening  will  commend  itself  to 
those  who  grow  or  aim  to  grow  large  and  valuable  crops 
upon  small  areas  of  land." 

Greenhouse  Irrigation. — This  is  the  modern  idea 
in  greenhouse  construcftion,  and  the  writer  is  impressed 
with  the  system  described  by  Professor  L.  A.  Taft,  in 
the  American  Agriculturist,  and  shown  by  sedlional 
view  in  Fig.  109. 

A  durable  greenhouse  bench  for  subirrigation  can 
be  built  of  cement,  at  small  cost,  especially  if  it  is  to  be 
at  the  same  level  as  the  wall.  When  the  bed  is  desired 
at  the  hight  of  three  or  more  feet,  supports  must  be 
provided.  When  the  natural  level  of  the  soil  is  where 
the  bottom  of  the  bed  should  come,  one  has  only  to 
excavate  walks,  and  run  up  the  walls.  In  a  house 
twenty  feet  wide  it  will  be  easier  to  make  two  wide 
benches,  with  a  walk  in  the  center  and  two  quite  nar- 
row ones  next  to  the  outer  walls  of  the  house.  Having 
provided  for  benches,  the  subirrigation  may  be  secured 
by  means  of  two  or  three  rows  of  two  and  one-half  inch 
drain-tiles  laid  lengthwise  of  each  bed.  If  the  beds  are 
long,  it  will  be  well  to  have  a  slope  at  least  one  inch 
in  thirty  feet  from  the  point  where  the  water  is  admit- 
ted. To  avoid  the  over-saturation  of  the  soil,  the  lower 
ends  of  the  tiles  can  extend  beyond  the  ends  of  the 
beds,  and  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  closed  while 
the  water  is  being  admitted,  and  opened  so  as  to  allow 


SUBIRRIGATION   AND   SUBSOILING. 


431 


all  surplus  to  drain  off  when  a  sufficient  time  has  been 
given  the  soil  to  take  up  the  needed  water.  In  this 
way  the  soil  can  also  be  well  aerated,  and  if  bottom 
heat  is  desired,  one  has  only  to  run  steam  or  hot  water 
pipes  through  the  tiles. 

When  the  beds  are  to  be  irrigated,  water  is  poured 
quickly  into  the  ends  of  the  rows  of  the  tiles,  so  that 
it  will  run  the  entire  length  of  each  row  at  once,  and 


FIG.  109 — GREENHOUSE   IRRIGATION. 


soak  out  slowly  and  uniformly  through  the  adjacent 
soil;  watering  is  to  be  done  as  often  as  the  plants  re- 
quire it,  and  their  needs  are  learned  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  by  surface  watering,  but  the  applications  need 
not  be  so  frequent  as  by  the  old  plan.  It  may  readily 
be  seen  that  this  system  has  some  advantages.  Here- 
tofore the  difficulty  has  been  that  when  the  moisture 
was  applied  dire(5lly  on  the  plants,  the  result  was  rot  or 
mildew,  lettuce  being  attacked  by  fungus  severely  in 


432  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

some  instances,  which  is  believed  to  be  due  to  the  fre- 
quent appHcation  of  water  to  the  foliage. 

Subsoiling. — The  greatest  step  in  modem  agricul- 
tural advancement,  especially  in  the  arid  regions  of  the 
west,  where  the  soil  is  of  a  tenacious  hard-pan  charac- 
ter, is  subsoiling.  Every  thoughtful  farmer  has  known 
for  years  that  if  he  had  a  plow  that  would  stir  the 
under  soil  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  deep  it 
would  be  the  most  desirable  tool  on  the  farm.  But  the 
trouble  has  been  that  no  such  tool  could  be  found  that 
could  be  used  in  hard  subsoil  with  any  reasonable 
amount  of  power. 

Recently  a  number  of  subsoil  plows  have  been  in- 
vented which  are  simple  and  inexpensive,  and  pecul- 
iarly adapted  to  run  deep  in  the  hardest  subsoil  with 
a  moderate  amount  of  power.  In  reasonably  hard 
subsoil  two  good  horses  have  run  a  subsoiler  fourteen 
inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  of  a  common 
stirring  plow.  Allowing  six  inches  as  the  depth  which 
stirring  plows  run,  this  makes  twenty  inches  from  the 
surface  that  is  broken  up  and  made  mellow  by  the  sub- 
soiler. 

This  would  permit  the  heaviest  rains  to  quickly  go 
down  from  the  surface,  and  to  be  retained  far  enough 
below  to  avoid  being  evaporated  soon  by  the  hot  sun, 
and  would  be  exadlly  in  the  right  place  for  the  grow- 
ing crops.  Besides,  the  next  time  the  same  ground 
was  subsoiled  it  would  be  comparatively  an  easy  job  to 
go  from  four  to  six  inches  deeper,  making  two  feet  or 
more  of  mellow  soil,  which  would  hold  an  immense 
amount  of  water,  so  that  during  the  rainiest  seasons  the 
water  would  not  run  off  into  the  rivers.     In  describing 


SUBIRRIGATION   AND   SUBSOILING.  433 

his  experience  with  a  subsoiler  in  Allan  County,  Kan- 
sas, Clarence  J.  Norton  wrote  : 

' '  When  I  received  my  plow  from  the  manufacturer 
I  made  no  change  of  adjustment,  as  it  was  set  for  three 
horses,  and  I  reasoned  that  the  maker  knew  how  it 
ought  to  be  run,  and  I  did  not  have  to  make  any 
change  at  all.  The  plow  went  sixteen  inches  deep 
from  the  surface  and  pulled  very  hard  on  the  team.  I 
went  one  round  after  many  stops  to  rest,  and  then 
changed  double- trees  and  put  on  a  big  Percheron  stal- 
lion. They  now  went  easier,  but  in  a  short  time  I  be- 
came aware  that  the  enormous  strain  was  too  much  to 
keep  up  long,  so  I  lowered  the  shoe  to  make  the  plow 
run  about  fourteen  inches  in  depth,  plowing  every  two 
feet  apart.  This  is  all  the  change  I  made,  except  to 
raise  the  shoe  again  for  twenty  inches  when  cross- 
plowing. 

'  *  This  plow  does  not  throw  out  any  earth  at  all. 
It  simply  lifts  up  the  ground  about  four  inches,  raising 
it  most  at  the  plow  and  for  two  feet  each  way,  when, 
of  course,  the  ground  splits  or  cracks  in  front  of  the 
standard,  and  allows  the  inch  and  a  half  standard  to 
pass  through,  only  leaving  just  such  a  track  as  a 
ground  mole  leaves,  excepting  that  this  plow  mole 
goes  fourteen  inches  deep.  When  I  returned  four  feet 
away,  the  whole  ground  between  the  plow-marks  was 
raised  up,  loosened,  or  stirred,  being  raised  the  most 
where  the  plow  had  gone,  and  at  the  two-foot  point  be- 
tween it  had  the  appearance  of  a  dead  furrow  ;  but 
when  this  was  also  plowed  into  it  was  raised  just  as 
high  as  the  rest.  The  earth  seemed  to  be  moved  ahead 
a  little  and  raised  up  about  four  inches.     It  was  won- 


434  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

derfuUy  mellow  and  could  have  been  harrowed  down 
to  a  fine  seed-bed.  I  plowed  three  acres  in  one  and 
one-half  days  and  then  cross-plowed  it,  going  every  twoi 
and  one-half  feet  apart  and  twenty  inches  deep. 

' '  When  I  came  to  cross-plow  I  discovered  the 
change  even  more  marked.  I  plowed  from  one  end  in 
the  form  of  a  back  furrow,  going  every  five  feet,  or  as 
close  as  the  plow  would  run  with  the  near  horse  close 
to  the  last  mark.  After  this  back  furrow  land  became 
about  thirty  feet  wide  I  split  the  marks  going  one  way, 
and  came  back  five  feet  away  as  before,  thus  always 
turning  one  way  ;  and  as  I  leaned  the  plow  only  a 
little  I  plowed  around  the  ends,  which  in  fa(5t  were  the 
best  plowed.  This  second  plowing  was  done  to  the 
hard-pan,  but  not  in  it.  The  soil  was  real  moist  for 
$ix  inches  down,  when  from  there  to  the  hard-pan  it 
was  as  dry  as  blotting-paper,  and  had  probably  not 
been  wet  for  two  years  or  more.  Now  this  earth  is  at 
least  six  or  eight  inches  higher  than  before,  and  will 
take  in  all  the  rain  it  can  hold,  and  the  lower  soil 
in  drying  out  again  will  of  necessity  supply  the  surface 
with  moisture,  as  the  gumbo  below  it  is  waterproof." 

Irrigation  Hard-Pan.— Thisisone  of  the  peculiar 
annoying  outgrowths  of  surface  irrigation  in  many 
parts  of  the  irrigated  west,  especially  among  the  citrus 
orchards  of  Southern  California.  This  singular  sub- 
stratum should  not  be  confounded  with  the  natural 
hard-pan  in  stifE  clay  soils  found  the  world  over.  The 
irrigation  hard-pan  is  an  altogether  different  condition, 
occurring  as  it  does  in  deep,  loamy  soils,  and  is  appar- 
ently occasioned  by  the  gradual  running  together  or 
cementing  of  the  soil  in  irrigated  orchards  at  a  depth 


SUBIRRIGATION   AND   SUBSOIUNG.  435 

immediately  below  that  reached  by  the  customary  fre- 
quent cultivation.  It  is  more  frequently  observed  in 
orchards  which  have  been  subjedled  for  a  few  years  to 
irrigation  and  cultivation  as  ordinarily  pra(5liced,  and 
seems  to  be  a  gradual  process.  A  most  urgent  appeal 
was  made  a  few  years  ago  to  the  United  States  Agri- 
cultural Department  for  a  solution  of  the  mystery,  but 


FIG.    IIO — SUBSOIL    PLOW. 


the  matter  was  turned  down  completely  with  the  usual 
promptitude  so  characSleristic  of  that  organization  at 
the  time. 

As  a  matter  of  fa(5t  the  trouble  is  of  most  simple 
solution,  inasmuch  as  it  is  caused  by  a  peculiar  ac5lion 
of  certain  chemicals  in  the  soil  superinduced  by  solar 
influence,  the  result  of  which  is  not  unlike  the  harden- 
ing of  mortar  in  a  plaster  bed  when  negledted  by 
workmen.  Usually  it  exists  four  to  five  inches  in 
thickness  just  below  the  line  of  draft  of  plows  or  culti- 
vating implements.  That  it  is  a  very  serious  obstacle 
to  the  irrigation  of  the  soil  to  a  proper  depth  can 
readily  be  understood.  In  orchards  underlaid  by  this 
pan  the  trees  in  the  hot  summer  months  will  wilt  in 


436  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

two  weeks  after  receiving  the  most  thorough  surface 
irrigation.  The  trees  suffer  in  consequence,  and  the 
size  and  quality  of  the  fruit  is  seriously  impaired. 
The  difficulty  has  been  overcome  in  a  measure  by 
breaking  the  hard-pan  crust  with  a  subsoil  plow,  such 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  no,  running  the  plow  one  or  two 
rounds,  midway  between  the  rows  of  trees  as  described 
in  the  chapter  on  orchards. 

Frank  L.  Palmer,  of  North  Pomona,  California, 
once  tried  the  experiment  of  tearing  up  some  of  this 
hard-pan  by  furrowing  with  a  ten-inch  turning  plow  in 
the  middle  of  July.  He  plowed  eight  rows  in  this 
manner  and  turned  up  large  chunks  of  hard-pan,  which, 
of  course,  were  difficult  to  subdue,  but  he  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  pulverizing  them  and  getting  the  surface 
into  tolerable  condition  again.  Notwithstanding  this 
the  soil  began  to  run  together  after  the  first  irrigation, 
and  the  trouble  seemed  to  be  as  pronounced  as  ever. 

Analysis  of  this  formation  showed  that  while  it 
contained  no  excess  of  lime  or  of  carbonates,  it  had 
four  per  cent,  of  aluminum  hydrates,  and  this  consti- 
tuted the  bulk  of  the  cementing  material.  It  was  sub- 
sequently ascertained  that  the  water  used  in  irrigating 
this  particular  orchard  carried  excess  quantities  of 
lime  in  solution,  and  this  naturally  added  to  the  diffi- 
culties experienced  when  applied  to  the  land  under  the 
scorching  influence  of  the  sun.  This  perplexing  prob- 
lem is  in  facft  nothing  new  in  Southern  California,  for 
the  chronicles  tell  us  that  as  far  back  as  loo  years  ago 
a  similar  condition  existed  near  San  Gabriel.  The 
lands  formerly  cultivated  by  the  padres  about  the  old 
Spanish  missions  were  irrigated  from  ditches,  which 


SUBIRRIGATION  AND  SUBSOILING.  437 

gradually  became  cemented  with  a  calcareous  coating 
two  inches  in  thickness.  This  phenomenon  was  no 
doubt  caused  by  the  lime  deposit  left  by  the  water 
running  in  the  ditches.  In  cleaning  them  periodically, 
the  old  settlers  were  very  careful  not  to  disturb  this 
formation  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditches,  having  learned 
by  experience  that  when  this  was  done  there  was  loss 
of  water  from  seepage.  Subirrigation  will  no  doubt 
redlify  this  condition  and  restore  the  soil  to  its  natural 
status. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
SEEPAGE   AND  DRAINAGE. 

HNE  of  the  most  startling  revelations  of  later 
years  adling  as  a  serious  menace  to  modern 
agriculture,  as  carried  on  by  present  irrigation 
methods,  is  the  loss  of  many  thousand  acres 
of  valuable  bottom-lands,  by  the  indudlion  of  seepage 
waters,  coming  as  they  do  through  subterranean  ways 
from  the  great  canals  or  other  sources  of  water-supply 
on  the  higher  lands.  We  of  the  irrigated  west  are 
to-day  confronted  by  a  condition  more  serious  than  the 
most  extravagant  theory,  and  the  means  of  abating  the 
evil  will  need  the  closest  study  of  our  most  careful 
thinkers  and  scientific  men.  In  the  earlier  days  of 
western  development  and  before  the  extent  of  irriga- 
tion was  fully  realized,  the  choicest  lands  were  con- 
sidered those  lying  along  the  lower  river-bottoms,  and 
naturally  enough  were  the  first  to  be  occupied  and  util- 
ized by  settlers.  In  course  of  time  these  lands,  excep- 
tionally rich  and  available,  were  all  taken  for  their 
alluvial  fertility  and  adaptability  to  irrigation  facilities. 
The  second  bottom-land  was  thought  to  be  entirely  out 
of  the  question  for  other  than  grazing  purposes,  but 
with  the  advent  of  time  and  the  organization  of  com- 
panies and  capital  for  constructing  the  great  canals, 
these  lands  soon  became  even  more  desirable  than  the 
bottoms,  and  ready  capital  found  the  means  for  their 
occupancy  and  usefulness. 
438 


SKEPAGK   AND    DRAINAGE.  439 

After  ten  or  fifteen  years  of  constant  irrigation,  it 
began  to  be  noticed  that  the  seepage  waters  of  these 
larger  canals  were  working  most  damaging  results 
upon  the  river  flats.  The  condition  of  many  thousand 
acres  may  justly  be  designated  as  water-sick — that  is, 
they  have  been  rendered  sick,  as  the  saying  goes,  by 
the  constant  seepage  of  water  as  described,  and  the  con- 
sequence is  the  formation  of  pools,  sloughs,  bogs,  and 
marshy  places  in  spots  where  the  waters  naturally 
settle  in  seeking  a  level,  while  a  superabundance  of 
saturation  prevails  throughout  all  soil  coming  within 
the  scope  of  their  baneful  influence.  When  soil  becomes 
filled  to  an  extent  exceeding  a  70  per  cent,  saturation 
it  may  then  be  termed  water-sick,  or  perhaps  can  be 
better  understood  by  the  term  water-logged.  It  may 
be  well  at  this  point  to  interpolate  the  f  a(5l  that  no  land 
can  be  profitably  irrigated  that  has  not  either  natural 
or  artificial  drainage.  While  no  plant  can  grow  with- 
out water,  too  much  water  will  drown  and  kill  it. 
The  same  law  that  governs  the  animal  governs  the 
vegetable  kingdom  as  well.  Neither  can  live  without 
water,  and  too  much  very  soon  kills.  It  is  just  as 
essential  for  the  roots  of  plants  to  come  in  contadl  with 
the  air  as  it  is  for  the  tops,  and  any  process  that  tends 
to  draw  the  atmosphere  out  of  the  air-cells  and  fill  them 
with  water  is  detrimental  to  the  growth  of  all  vegetable 
life,  except  perhaps  such  things  as  foxtail,  water- 
grass,  the  iris,  and  other  aquatic  plants. 

Action  of  Seepage. — In  irrigating,  more  water  is 
often  applied  than  the  crop  uses,  and  while  the  roots, 
are  taking  up  what  they  necessarily  require  some  flows 
off  on  the  surface,  some  evaporates  into  the  air,  and 


440  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

some  sinks  into  the  soil  below  the  reach  of  plants. 
The  amount  of  water  which  sinks  below  the  roots  of 
the  irrigated  crops  depends  upon  various  conditions. 
Observations  in  many  secflions  show  that  usually  this 
water  sinks  diredlly  downward  with  very  little  side- 
flow  till  it  reaches  a  stratum  of  rock  or  clay  so  compadl 
that  it  can  go  no  farther.  Then  as  other  sinking 
water  is  added,  the  surface  of  the  underground  reser- 
voir rises,  filling  all  the  pores  and  spaces  in  the  soil  till 
it  reaches  a  layer  of  gravel  or  sand,  through  which  it 
slowly  percolates  until  it  finds  outlet  into  the  river 
from  which  it  was  originally  taken,  or  it  may  appear  in 
some  arroyo,  branch,  or  draw  which  leads  into  the 
river — in  any  event,  it  finally  finds  its  way  back  to  the 
parent  stream.  This  is  why  the  water-table  in  the 
wells  of  an  irrigated  country  rises  many  feet  nearer  the 
surface  than  before  irrigation  was  pradliced,  and  even 
springs  often  burst  out  at  the  foot  of  hills  below  irri- 
gated fields  or  mesas.  The  deeper  this  seepage  water 
has  to  sink  before  finding  an  impervious  layer  to  form 
the  bottom  of  its  underground  reservoir,  the  longer 
will  it  be  before  the  detrimental  effec5ls  of  over-irrigation 
will  show  themselves  and  the  looser  the  layer  through 
which  it  flows,  and  the  greater  the  slope  of  such  layer  the 
more  rapid  will  be  the  underflow  of  the  seepage  water. 
This  underflow  may  come  out  t^pon  a  lower  lying 
field,  and  as  said  previously  tend  to  convert  it  into  a 
marsh,  establishing  water-sick  land,  or  it  may  bring 
up  a  solution  of  alkali  to  ruin  the  soil  of  such  fields. 
In  either  case,  suits  for  damages  may  follow.  Such 
results  are  becoming  alarmingly  apparent  in  the  irri- 
gated distridls  of  Colorado  and  elsewhere  throughout 


SEEPAGE  AND  DRAINAGE.  44 1 

the  far  west.  On  the  other  hand,  this  seepage  water 
returning  to  the  stream  from  which  it  originally  came 
passes  on  to  bless  the  fields  of  those  who  live  farther 
down.  The  courts  have  been  asked  to  decide  damage 
suits  for  injury  often  caused  by  seepage,  but  judgment 
cannot  usually  be  obtained,  although  such  may  be  the 
result  where  wilful  negligence  is  shown  on  the  part  of 
the  defendant  corporation  or  individual.  It  generally 
devolves  upon  the  owner  of  impaired  land  to  seek  his 
own  relief,  which  is  done  by  drainage,  pumping,  or 
other  means  known  to  irrigation  experts.  Of  later 
years  the  trouble  is  quite  apparent  on  some  of  the  up- 
lands, and  with  it  eomes  the  added  difficulty  of  alkali 
rising  to  the  surface.  All  these  things  imply  careless- 
ness and  extravagance  in  the  use  of  water  on  land, 
and  the  remedy  rests  largely  in  the  judgment  of  the 
consumer  himself.  Irrigating  out  of  season,  allowing 
the  water  to  run  longer  than  necessary,  and  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  soils  on  which  it  is  applied  are 
all  paramount  sources  of  water-sick  land. 

Remedial  Agencies. — In  some  places,  particu- 
larly in  Utah,  the  damaging  effedls  of  seepage  have 
become  such  a  nuisance  as  to  threaten  public  menace. 
In  most  instances  the  trouble  might  have  been  more 
easily  prevented  than  can  be  cured,  and  prevention 
should  now  be  invoked  in  such  localities  as  are  not 
already  suffering  from  the  advanced  stages  of  over- 
watering.  If  the  ground  is  leveled  at  the  outset  so 
that  it  can  be  watered  evenly  and  drains  are  made  to 
carry  away  the  surplus,  there  is  not  much  danger, 
provided  the  waste-drains  are  not  discharged  so  as  to 
damage  other  lands  below.     There  is  no  hardship  in 


44*  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  extra  expense  involved  in  this,  because  the  instant 
effedt  is  to  increase  produdlion  with  less  outlay  of 
labor.  The  magnitude  of  the  interests  involved,  the 
curtailing  and  absolute  destru<5lion  of  produ<5live  capac- 
ity as  afFec5ling  the  welfare  of  the  community  at  large, 
regardless  of  individual  losses  suffered  ;  the  neutraliz- 
ing of  the  vast  expenditures  made  for  the  original 
reclamation  of  desert  lands  ;  the  waste  of  water,  one 
of  the  most  valuable  of  natural  resources,  and  the 
limitation  put  upon  further  land  improvement  thereby 
^-all  these  should  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  all  people 
and  should  justify  any  public  measures  that  may  be 
necessary  to  corredl  the  grievous  wrong.  Conse- 
quently, steps  toward  legislative  relief  have  been  con- 
sidered advisable  in  many  western  states,  and  these 
are  likely  to  be  taken  before  the  evil  is  corre<5led.  To 
do  this,  however,  must  necessarily  involve  many  com- 
plications not  so  easily  overcome.  As  a  general  thing 
the  irrigation  companies  themselves  are  powerless  to 
prevent  the  difficulty,  for  the  reason  that  under  existant 
contra(5ls  with  the  farmers  they  are  entitled  to  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  water  for  each  eighty  acres,  which  is 
probably  twice  as  much  as  is  really  necessary  to  use. 
Unless  the  stated  amount  is  assigned  to  the  farmers 
there  is  danger  of  legal  complications.  Hence  be- 
cause there  is  a  large  surplusage  of  water  available,  it 
is  contributing  to  the  rapid  diminution  of  produdl  and 
a  deterioration  of  the  soils.  Speaking  from  an  indi- 
vidual standpoint  it  must  be  seen  that  drainage  is  the 
only  alternative.  Each  year  emphasizes  the  fac5l  that 
drainage  is  the  handmaid  of  irrigation.  The  one  de- 
mands the  other. 


SKEPAGK  AND   DRAINAGE. 


443 


Open  Ditches. — There  are  different  methods  of 
drainage  suitable  alike  to  the  surrounding  conditions. 
For  draining  swampy  lands  caused  from  seepage,  open 
ditches  cut  at  an  average  depth  of  three  or  four  feet 
will  reclaim  the  land  and  make  it  tillable.  These 
should  be  run  with  the  fall  or  slope  of  the  land.  A 
mistaken  course  is  often  adopted  by  placing  the  lines 
for  the  drains  in  an  oblique  direction  down  the  slope 
instead   of  direc5lly   by   the  shortest   course.       Such 


-INCORRECT    DRAINAGE. 


ditches  are  needlessly  long  and  are  made  with  much 
additional  labor,  and,  what  is  still  more  obje<5lionable, 
they  perform  their  intended  work  in  a  very  inefficient 
manner.  Fig.  iii  represents  the  portion  of  a  field, 
the  lower  part  of  which  toward  the  spectator  receives 
the  water  from  the  sloping  land  above.  The  dark 
lines  are  the  ditches,  laid  in  a  slanting  diredlion,  and 
are  much  longer  than  those  in  Fig.  112,  which  run  by 
the  shortest  cut  direcflly  down  the  slope.  An  objec- 
tion to  the  sloping  drainage,  as  already  stated,  is  that 
it  carries  off  the  surplus  water  in  a  very  imperfe(5l 
manner.  As  water  will  not  run  up-hill,  all  the  water 
received  by  such  ditches  presses  toward  the  lower  side, 
and  as  the  ditch  is  expecfted  to  draw  water  away  from 


444 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


the  soil  on  the  upper  side,  from  a  distance  of  a  rod  or 
more,  by  the  porous  texture  of  such  soil,  so  the  earth, 
being  equally  porous  on  the  lower  side,  will  allow  it 
to  leak  out  and  pass  a  rod  or  more  on  the  lower  side 
toward  the  next  ditch  below. 

If  the  trenches  are  cut  dire(5lly  down  the  slope  by 
the  shortest  course,  no  water  can  leak  out,  as  there  is 


•:l. 


.S5^ 


st 


V.    4 


t 


FIG.   112 — CORRECT    DRAINAGE. 


no  lower  side,  but  it  all  takes  the  ready  channel  offered 
it  and  rapidly  escapes.  This  ready  channel  in  effe<5l 
draws  the  water  from  the  soil  on  each  side,  the  bottom 
of  the  ditch  being  lower  than  the  adjacent  soil,  while 
the  natural  descent  of  the  ground  and  the  downward 
currents  are  quickly  carried  off  by  the  central  ditches, 
the  arrows  in  both  the  figures  showing  the  currents. 
The  difference  should  be  always  borne  in  mind  between 
the  water  currents  as  they  soak  slowly  through  the 
earth  by  natural  drainage,  or  as  they  rush  rapidly 
down-hill  through  tile  or  other  smooth  and  straight 


SEEPAGE  AND  DRAINAGE.  445 

artificial  channels  which  the  owner  of  the  land  has 
provided.  By  the  natural  drainage,  creeping  slowly 
by  minute  quantities  down  the  slope,  added  to  the 
slow,  natural  evaporation,  two  or  three  weeks,  or  even 
a  month,  are  often  required  to  relieve  land  which 
might  otherwise  be  dried  in  a  few  days.  It  may  be 
desirable  to  have  the  drains  covered,  in  which  case  the 
trenches  can  be  half  filled  with  loose  materials,  such  as 
broken  stone,  brush,  logs,  or  any  debris  sufficiently 
solid  to  hold  up  the  covering,  which  should  be  thick 
enough  to  admit  of  plowing. 

The  Steam  Irishman. — So  pradlicable  has  the 
plan  of  open  trenches  proven  that  already  a  number  of 
new  canals  have  been  construcfled  which  obtain  their 
supply  of  water  wholly  from  seepage  pools  or  basins. 
One  of  these  canals  is  near  Platteville,  Colorado,  and 
was  construdted  with  a  steam  dredging-machine  floated 
on  a  mud-scow,  as  shown  in  Fig.  113.  This  machine 
is  twelve  feet  wide,  and  is  really  a  house-boat  contain- 
ing the  power  for  working  a  dredge  or  *  *  steam  Irish- 
man," as  it  is  often  called.  It  cuts  a  ditch  or  tunnel 
through  swamps  or  other  low  ground,  beginning  at 
the  head  of  the  proposed  canal,  and  is  floated  gradu- 
ally along  by  the  drainage  water  which  follows  behind 
and  around  the  scow.  It  scoops  out  dirt,  stones,  and 
even  small  trees  at  a  wonderful  rate.  Such  a  machine 
will  do  the  work  of  a  full  gang  of  men,  and  can  also 
work  in  places  where  men  could  not  possibly  operate. 
By  means  of  these  dredges  large  tradls  of  land  have 
been  drained  and  made  fit  for  the  plow.  In  some 
places  these  canals  are  cut  not  only  to  afford  outlet  for 
drainage  water,  but  are  utilized  for  the  double  pur- 


SEKPAGB  AND   DRAINAGE.  447 

pose  of  reclaiming  new  seAions  of  arid  land,  and  in 
this  way  the  water  serves  a  twofold  mission.  One 
peculiarity  about  these  canals  is  their  constancy  of 
flow,  which  is  most  marked  in  midsummer,  at  a  time 
when  many  of  the  original  canals  are  at  low  ebb. 

Tiling. — Another  good  method  of  drainage  is  by 
the  use  of  tiling.  This  may  be  large  or  small,  propor- 
tionate to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  area  to  be 
drained.  The  price  of  vitrified  sewer  pipe,  which  is 
best  of  all  for  the  purpose,  varies  greatly  according  to 
size,  and  ranges  all  the  way  from  twenty  cents  a  foot 
for  six-inch  tile  to  $2  a  foot  for  twenty-four-inch  pipe. 
With  a  grade  of  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches  to  the 
mile,  the  use  of  tiling  is  thoroughly  pradlicable,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  one  wishes  to  go  to  the  expense 
of  putting  in  such  a  system  of  drainage.  However, 
tile  ditches  put  through  very  wet  places  may  only  im- 
perfec5lly  drain  the  surrounding  soil.  Water  has  been 
seen  to  stand  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  tile 
buried  three  feet  below — all  clear,  free,  and  in  good 
working  order.  The  reason  is  the  water  is  forced  out 
of  the  ground  by  an  upward  pressure  and  comes 
through  little  seams  and  veins  distributed  through  the 
soil,  many  of  them  near  the  tile  perhaps.  The  water 
may  come  nearly  or  quite  to  the  surface  before  work- 
ing its  way  to  the  tile.  The  natural  remedy  whenever 
available  is  to  give  the  tile  greater  pitch  so  as  to  create 
more  momentum  in  the  flow  and  thus  attrac5l  outstand- 
ing water  to  the  pipe,  which  in  this  instance  should  be 
loose- jointed  so  as  to  allow  intake  at  every  collar. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
ELECTRICITY    IN    IRRIGATION. 


^T^  HERB  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  great  irrigation 
^^1  enterprises  of  the  future  must  depend  more 
^^il  or  less  upon  power  for  lifting  water,  and  this 
can  best  be  supplied  by  eledlricity.  The 
running  water  of  natural  streams  of  the  arid  west  is 
virtually  all  appropriated,  and  promoters  of  irrigation 
works  in  the  future  must  look  below  the  surface  for 
water-supplies.  In  figuring  on  the  possibilities  of 
ele<5lricity  for  developing  the  necessary  power,  the  fol- 
lowing computation  based  on  a  proposition  to  irrigate 
twenty  sedlions  of  land  with  thirty-four  motors  oper- 
ated from  one  central  power-station  may  be  valuable  in 
aiding  operators  to  calculate  the  feasibility  of  such 
plan.  There  are  6,272,640  square  inches  in  an  acre  of 
land.  There  are  231  cubic  inches  in  a  gallon. 
Twenty-seven  thousand  one  hundred  and  fifty-four 
gallons  will  cover  an  acre  one  inch  deep.  A  twenty- 
five  horse-power  motor  will  pump  1,000  gallons  a  min- 
ute and  raise  the  water  fifty  feet .  One  thousand  gallons 
a  minute  for  twenty-four  hours  will  cover  fifty-three 
acres  one  inch  deep.  Fifty-three  acres  a  day  for  seven 
days  equals  371  acres. 
448 


KI.KCTRICITY   IN   IRRIGATION.  449 

COST  OF   POWER-HOUSE 

Two  500  horse-power  dynamos  at  $7,000 $14,000 

Two  500  horse-power  engines  at  $4,000 8,000 

Five  250  ho/se-power  boilers  at  $1,800 9,000 

Foundations,  etc 2,000 

Buildings  and  well 4,000 

Total  cost  of  power-house $37,000 

One  thousand  horse-power  less  fifteen  per  cent,  loss 
in  transmission,  etc.,  would  be  850  horse-power  acftual 
service  given.  Eight  hundred  and  fifty  horse-power 
will  run  thirty-four  twenty-five  horse-power  motors. 
Three  hundred  and  seventy-one  acres  times  thirty-four 
equals  12,614  acres  irrigated  by  1,000  horse-power 
ele(5lric  plant. 

COST   OF    EQUIPMENT   AND    LAND 

Thirty-four  wells  at  $300  each $10,200 

Thirty-four  pumps  at  $150  each 5. 100 

Thirty-four  motors  at  $300  each 10,200 

One  thousand  poles  at  $2  each 2,000 

Copper  wire 5.000 

Total  cost  of  equipment $32,500 

Cost  of  machinery  an  acre,  including  plant $5«5i 

Estimated  cost  of  ditches  and  reservoir  an  acre  .    .    .         3.00 
Estimated  original  cost  of  land  an  acre 5-oo 

Total  cost  for  each  acre $i3-5i 

The  value  of  12,614  acres  well  watered  at  $50  is 
$630,700.  The  cost  of  1 2,614  acres  ^^^  plant  at  $13.51 
equals  $170,415.14,  making  a   gain   in  valuation  of 


450  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

$460,284.86,  which  amounts  to  270  per  cent,  gain  on 
the  investment.  One  thousand  horse-power  would 
cost  $50  for  each  horse-power  per  annum,  which  for 
five  months  of  an  irrigating  season  would  cost  $20.83 
for  each  horse-power,  or  a  total  of  $20,830.  The  cost 
of  the  motor- tenders,  oil,  etc.,  would  amount  to  $750, 
making  the  total  operating  expense  $21,580  for  the 
entire  12,614  acres,  or  $1.71  for  each  acre. 

Generating  Electricity  by  Turbines. —Prob- 
ably a  more  feasible  proposition  would  be  to  harness 
the  streams  of  mountains,  thus  creating  water-power, 
with  which  to  turn  turbines  for  the  operation  of  dyna- 
mos. The  pracfticability  of  such  transmission  for  not 
only  twenty  or  thirty  miles,  but  even  for  150  or  180 
miles,  has  opened  the  way  for  this  new  and  enormous 
proposition.  Let  us  suppose  a  stream  flowing  from 
the  mountains  down  into  a  large  broad  valley  or  a  plain 
a  hundred  miles  below.  The  water  from  this  river  is 
perhaps  sufficient  to  irrigate  only  one-half  or  one-third 
of  the  plain,  and  all  the  rest  is  dead  land.  We  will 
presume,  however,  an  underflow  beneath  this  remain- 
ing, or  dead  land,  which  can  usually  be  found  at  a 
depth  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  feet.  This  would  fur- 
nish an  inexhaustible  supply  of  good  water  for  irriga- 
tion could  it  be  gotten  economically  to  the  surface. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  lowlands  of  the  valleys  adjacent 
or  tributary  to  the  forest  areas  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains or  the  Sierra  Nevadas  are  underlaid  with  this 
water — a  pradlically  inexhaustible  supply  suitable  for 
pumping.  Fuel,  however,  is  often  expensive,  although 
a  1 ,000  horse-power  ele<5lric  plant  near  Grand  Junction, 
Colorado,  is  operated  by  burning  slack  coal  costing 


KLKCTRICITY   IN   IRRIGATION.  45 1 

comparatively  nothing.  This  installation  is  delivering 
50,000  gallons  a  minute  fifty  feet  high,  adequate  for 
irrigating  10,000  acres  of  orchard. 

Storage  reservoirs  can  be  constru(5led  in  the  moun- 
tains in  such  manner  as  to  utilize  the  power  of  a  river 
or  its  fall  to  the  full  extent,  and  from  this  plant  or 
plants  the  power  generated  can  be  transmitted  down 
the  valley  to  the  twenty  or  forty  acre  irrigated  farms, 
where  it  can  be  applied  to  an  eledlric  motor  operating 
a  pump  lifting  water  upon  the  land  as  required.  This 
should  be  the  ideal  irrigation  system.  The  farmer 
could  start  his  motor  and  the  water  will  come.  When 
he  has  enough  he  shuts  it  off.  His  water-supply  is 
right  under  him  in  great  abundance.  The  prac5lica- 
bility  of  this  development  has  already  been  demon- 
strated by  a  number  of  plants  already  in  operation  in 
the  San  Joaquin  valley  of  California,  where  it  is 
claimed  that  water  is  a(5lually  being  pumped  at  less 
cost  than  from  gravity  ditches,  but  the  author  does 
not  stand  voucher  for  the  completeness  of  this  state- 
ment. There  are  no  doubt  many  opportunities  where 
elecftric  power  plants  can  be  economically  installed  in 
the  caiions  and  the  water  from  these  used  to  irrigate  the 
fields  miles  away.  The  power  from  these  plants  can 
be  conducted  to  points  beyond  reach  of  the  canals  and 
employed  in  lifting  underground  waters  to  the  surface. 

Induction  Motors  for  Combination  Pumping. 
— One  of  the  largest  and  most  successful  elecftric 
pumping  plants  in  the  world  is  operated  by  a  land 
company  in  Kern  County,  California.  This  concern 
instituted  a  very  careful  investigation  to  determine  the 
cheapest  and  most  effedlive  means  for  raising  water 


452  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

for  individual  consumers,  and  the  combination  is  now 
using  a  special  type  of  centrifugal  pump  adapted  to 
low  lift  and  high  speed — chara<5leristics  which  make  it 
possible  to  direc5lly  connedl  the  pumps  to  standard 
high-speed  indudlion  motors.  Twenty-five  pumping 
plants  are  operated  under  this  system,  each  delivering 
from  1,400  to  2,000  gallons  a  minute,  and  it  may  be 
said  in  a  very  liberal  sense  that  the  investment  has 
been  fully  justified  by  the  service  performed  during 
the  most  drouthy  conditions.  The  average  cost  of 
each  battery  was  $3,500.  Each  station  consists  of 
four  wells  in  a  line  sunk  to  a  depth  of  from  80  to  130 
feet  through  strata  of  alluvial  loam,  clay,  and  water- 
bearing sand.  The  wells  are  cased  with  galvanized 
iron  pipe  thirteen  inches  in  diameter  No.  16  gauge, 
perforated  with  vertical  slits  opened  about  a  sixteenth 
of  an  inch. 

The  casing  was  landed  in  clay,  perforating  all  the 
sand  below  a  depth  of  thirty  feet.  The  shoe  on  the 
starter  was  somewhat  larger  than  the  casing,  and  by 
means  of  a  small  supplementary  sand  pipe  sunk  to  the 
first  water  the  sand  encountered  by  the  large  casing 
was  inclosed  in  a  layer  of  coarse  sand  which,  while 
effedlually  excluding  the  flow  of  fine  sand,  offered  lit- 
tle obstrudlion  to  the  water  entering  the  casing.  Sur- 
face water  was  encountered  at  a  depth  of  from  ten  to 
fifteen  feet,  and,  as  a  rule,  a  flow  of  three  to  four  cubic 
feet  a  second  was  secured  when  the  thickness  of  the 
water-sand  was  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet.  In  this 
kind  of  work  much  depends  on  the  care  and  skill  exer- 
cised in  sinking  the  wells,  securing  a  proper  landing, 
and  adapting  the  perforations  to  the  quality  of  sand 


ELECTRICITY   IN   IRRIGATION.  453 

encountered.  The  Kern  county  wells  are  six  feet 
apart  on  centers,  and  the  flow  from  four  wells  is  a  little 
more  than  double  the  quantity  supplied  by  one  well. 
The  sills  of  the  pit  on  w^hich  the  pump  is  set  are  placed 
at  the  surface  water-level,  and  the  water  is  exhausted 
in  the  wells  to  a  depth  of  from  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
eight  feet,  making  the  total  lift  from  thirty-five  to 
forty  feet.  The  pit  was  excavated  to  water  and  lined 
with  redwood  one  inch  thick.  The  pump  was  set  in 
the  center  with  two  wells  on  either  side,  and  is  of  the 
ordinary  centrifugal  pit  type,  with  a  specially  designed 
runner  adapted  to  permit  of  direc5l  connedlion  to  a 
high-speed  vertical  shaft-motor,  without  sacrifice  of 
efficiency. 

Efficiency  of  Service. — The  pumps  are  scattered 
over  a  wide  area  of  land  belonging  to  the  company, 
and  are  operated  by  three  attendants  and  one  inspector. 
The  attendants  are  paid  $40  a  month  and  are  required 
to  visit  each  station  under  their  charge  once  or  twice  a 
day.  The  stations  are  so  far  apart  that  the  men  have 
to  ride  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  miles  a  day  to  perform 
their  duties,  and  one  man  operates  as  many  as  ten 
plants.  The  inspedlor  is  a  skilled  mechanic,  who,  as 
far  as  possible,  anticipates  any  deterioration,  and  when 
accidents  do  occur  is  prepared  to  make  repairs  with  the 
least  delay  possible.  During  a  whole  year  there  were 
months  when  the  a(5lual  operating  period  of  all  the 
pumps  was  over  ninety-eight  per  cent,  of  the  possible 
time.  The  pumps  ran  night  and  day,  Sundays  in- 
cluded, except  when  the  current  is  shut  off  the  lines  to 
permit  eledlrical  repairs,  and  thus  beneficial  use  is 
made  of  the  water  throughout  the  year. 


454  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Continuity  of  service  and  large  volume,  with  con- 
stant demand  for  the  water,  are  the  requisites  for  suc- 
cessful and  economical  pump  irrigation.  These  condi- 
tions have  been  met  by  the  use  of  eledlrical  power,  by 
grouping  several  pump  stations  together  within  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  of  each  other,  and  by  utilizing  the 
water  pumped  on  the  company's  storage  crops  when  no 
other  demand  exists  for  its  use  elsewhere.  Experience 
has  demonstrated  in  a  pra(5lical  way  that  pumping  to 
reasonable  hights  can  be  made  a  commercial  success. 
By  this  installation  the  company  is  enabled  to  sell 
water  to  farmers  at  the  rate  of  seventy-five  cents  an 
acre  foot,  and  the  actual  cost  an  acre  per  annum  is 
under  rather  than  over  $1.50.  While  this  figure  does 
not  mean  large  profits,  it  may  be  said  safely  that  it 
covers  power,  attendance,  interest,  and  depreciation, 
and  does  not  involve  any  loss  to  the  operating  com- 
pany. Individual  installations  will  not  attain  results 
so  favorable  as  these  because  the  necessary  experience 
and  organization  are  not  available  on  a  small  scale, 
but  where  elecflric  power  can  be  had  as  cheaply  as  in 
this  case,  and  neighbors  combine  to  construdt  pumping 
plants  for  joint  use  in  rotation,  the  cost  an  acre  should 
not  exceed  $2.50  per  annum. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 
IRRIGATION    IN   HUMID    CLIMATES. 


tlj  T  is  a  well-established  fa  61  in  agricultural  eco- 
-  '  1  nomics  that  no  soil  can  produce  large  yields 
^^^1  if  it  is  not  in  good  tilth  ;  no  soil  can  support 
heavy  crops  that  does  not  contain  the  requi- 
site materials  for  conversion  into  available  food  ;  no 
abundance  of  available  food  and  no  degree  of  perfection 
of  tilth  can  take  the  place  of  the  right  amount  of  soil 
moisture  at  just  the  right  time.  On  the  lighter  soil, 
of  which  there  are  many  thousands  of  acres  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  the  water  capacity  of  which  is  small, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  supplementary 
irrigation  will  give  increased  crops,  especially  under 
high  fertilization.  When  the  influence  of  irrigation 
on  the  yield  of  higher-priced  crops  like  the  small  fruits 
and  market  gardening  is  considered,  there  can  be  no 
question  of  the  commercial  advantage  of  supplementary 
irrigation  where  the  water  may  be  handled  at  a 
moderate  cost. 

It  is  not  so  much  a  deficiency  of  rainfall  in  the 
eastern  United  States  as  it  is  the  unfavorable  distribu- 
tion which  so  often  gives  too  little  soil  moisture  for 
large  yields.  All  crops  when  forming  fruit  buds  and 
developing  the  fruit  require  water  at  much  more  than 
the  average  rate,  and  it  is  deficiency  of  moisture  at 
such  times  which  so  greatly  cuts  down  the  yields.    In- 

455 


456  IRRIGATION   INARMING. 

asmuch  as  an  abundance  of  soil  moisture  and  good 
tilth  are  prime  requisites  for  the  development  of  avail- 
able nitrogen,  it  is  clear  that  a  deficiency  at  any  time 
between  July  and  September  must  reduce  the  yield  by 
lessening  the  rate  of  nitrate  development,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  this  occurrence  by  supplementary  irrigation 
must  tend  to  maintain  a  higher  average.  The  case  is 
rendered  still  more  critical  by  the  fadl  that  when  the 
amount  of  soil  moisture  is  drawn  down  very  low,  the 
rate  at  which  it  can  travel  through  the  soil  by  capil- 
larity to  reach  the  roots  is  so  much  reduced  by  rela- 
tively greater  fricftion  that  growth  must  slow  down 
because  the  water  cannot  move  rapidly  enough  to  meet 
the  needs. 

It  must  be  remembered  also  that  the  rains  are  never 
as  effedlive  after  the  soil  has  been  permitted  to  become 
too  dry,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  retained  so  close  to  the 
surface  that  it  does  not  reach  the  roots,  and  a  very  large 
percentage  of  it  is  returned  at  once  to  the  atmosphere 
through  evaporation  from  the  soil.  In  many  states  the 
rainfall  for  June,  July,  and  August  may  average  more 
than  twelve  inches,  and  yet  a  second  crop  of  hay  with- 
out irrigation  is  a  very  rare  possibility,  chiefly  because 
the  first  crop  so  thoroughly  dries  the  surface  soil  that 
future  rains  are  largely  retained  by  it  and  returned  to 
the  atmosphere  without  helping  the  crops  or  assisting 
in  developing  plant-food.  There  may  often  be  mois- 
ture enough  in  the  second  and  third  foot  so  that  a 
small  supplementary  irrigation  puts  the  soil  in  prime 
condition,  and  hence  a  comparatively  small  cost  when 
compared  with  the  demands  of  the  arid  region  would 
ensure  a  second  and  third  crop  of  hay.     Besides,  it  has 


IRRIGATION   IN   HUMID   CLIMATES.  457 

been  demonstrated  that  timothy,  which  is  an  excep- 
tionally harsh  and  fibrous  plant,  when  raised  under 
irrigation  is  over  five  per  cent,  better  in  quality  and  in 
nutritive  properties  than  that  raised  in  a  state  where 
the  rainfall  is  more  than  forty-eight  inches  annually. 
So  far  as  growth  and  quality  for  various  uses  go, 
there  is  no  peculiar  virtue  in  rainfall,  but  there  is  every 
advantage  in  wise  irrigation,  which  means  using  water 
at  the  right  time.  The  experience  of  centuries  in  vari- 
ous countries  shows  that  irrigation  water  is  generally 
superior  to  rain-water,  in  that  it  carries  greater  quan- 
tities of.  plant-food,  and  for  this  reason  irrigation 
should  be  considered  advantageous  by  farmers  living 
in  a  humid  climate  with  its  erratic  and  superabundant 
rainfall.  Easterners  express  wonder  at  times  when 
seeing  men  afield  in  the  far  west  irrigating  during 
rain-storms,  protected  by  rubber  clothing.  They  argue 
that  if  enough  moisture  is  being  precipitated  to  compel 
the  use  of  water-proof  clothing  it  is  not  necessary  to 
artificially  water  the  growing  crops.  This  great  error 
is  always  made  in  considering  the  benefits  of  irrigation. 
Rain  never  fell  on  growing  grain,  especially  about  the 
time  of  heading  out,  that  would  have  the  same  effe(5l 
which  good  irrigation  would  produce.  This  is  obvious. 
To  secure  complete  saturation  of  the  soil  to  a  depth  of 
from  six  to  eighteen  inches,  depending  on  the  com- 
position and  condition  of  the  soil,  would  necessitate  a 
cloudburst,  with  its  attendant  destruc5lion  to  both  soil 
and  crops.  We  are  not  discussing  the  effed;  of  irriga- 
tion iipon  the  moisture  content  of  the  atmosphere, 
although  the  more  the  principles  of  irrigation  are  put 
into  effecft  the  less  will  be  the  need  of  artificial  moisture. 


458  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Losses  by  Drouth. — Up  to  the  present  time  little 
has  been  done  in  eastern  states  with  irrigation  in  pro- 
ducing farm,  garden,  or  orchard  crops,  but  its  great 
value  has  been  demonstrated  in  a  few  striking  instances 
by  some  leading  fruit  growers,  and  these,  together  with 
the  general  interest  that  is  being  manifested  in  the  sub- 
jedl,  show  the  need  of  information  such  as  is  contained 
in  this  work.  Within  the  past  few  years  a  lively  agi- 
tation of  the  subjedl  has  appeared  in  the  agricultural 
press  of  the  east,  and  farmers  and  small  fruit  growers 
are  beginning  to  appreciate  the  value  of  artificial 
watering.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  this  country  the 
intensive  system  of  agriculture  is  rapidly  replacing  the 
extensive.  This  has  become  necessary  because  of  the 
rapidly  increasing  population  and  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  value  of  lands. 

In  the  last  fifty  years  the  agriculture  of  New  Eng- 
land has  been  entirely  changed.  A  system  of  general 
husbandry  has  been  largely  replaced  by  special  branches 
of  farming.  The  many  thriving  manufacfluring  cities 
and  towns  that  have  been  built  have  caused  great  de- 
mand for  fruits  and  vegetables.  These  produc5ls  have 
proven  especially  profitable  where  markets  are  near  at 
hand.  The  high  acreage  value  and  the  adlive  and  in- 
creasing demand  for  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables  have 
induced  many  farmers  to  enter  upon  the  produ(5lion 
of  these  crops.  It  is  in  such  lines  of  farming  and 
market  gardening  that  irrigation  has  its  highest  value. 
Where  the  cost  of  cultivation  is  large  the  losses  from 
drouth  are  felt  all  the  more  severely,  for  the  ex- 
penses are  essentially  the  same  whether  a  half  crop  or 
a  full  crop  is  harvested.     Losses  of  from  $ioo  to  $200 


IRRIGATION   IN   HUMID   CLIMATES.  459 

an  acre,  as  a  result  of  a  few  weeks'  drouth,  are  not 
uncommon. 

Utilizing  the  Water. — The  sources  of  w^ater  for 
irrigating  purposes  throughout  the  east  are  mainly 
from  small  natural  streams,  from  ponds,  wells,  and 
from  springs.  The  water  is  usually  stored  either  in 
open  ponds  or  in  large  tanks.  One  man  in  Michigan 
utilized  a  five-inch  spring  brook  on  his  place  so  as  to 
irrigate  eighty  acres  of  land.  He  estimated  the  value 
of  the  spring  to  be  worth  more  than  $5,000  and  cap- 
able of  paying  6  per  cent,  per  annum  on  that  basis. 

The  means  of  making  the  water  available  are 
through  some  form  of  power,  such  as  a  ram  or  wind- 
mill, or,  when  the  source  is  high  enough  above  the 
fields  to  be  watered,  it  is  condu(5led  to  and  over  the 
fields  through  open  ditches  or  pipes.  There  are  many 
instances  where  the  water  can  be  made  available  only 
by  some  form  of  power,  as  the  water  is  below  the  fields 
upon  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  Where  the  water  is 
supplied  by  means  of  a  ram  or  other  pumping  appli- 
ance it  becomes  necessary  to  economize  in  the  use  of 
water  and  to  prevent  losses  by  evaporation  in  order  to 
reduce  expense.  For  these  reasons  it  has  often  been 
thought  advisable  to  apply  the  water  from  pipes  dis- 
tributed over  the  fields,  but  the  author  has  always 
deprecated  this  system  as  being  too  much  of  the  clap- 
trap order.  Still  the  water  is  sometimes  allowed  to 
flow  between  the  rows  from  pipes  laid  along  one  end 
of  the  field.  In  other  cases  it  is  applied  by  spraying. 
The  cheapest  and  simplest  method  of  distributing  water 
is  by  condu(5ling  through  open  ditches,  and  there  are 
many  instances  where  this  is  being  successfully  done. 


460  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

There  are  many  localities  in  the  east,  especially  in 
hilly  countries,  and  oftentimes  along  the  side  of  a  river 
valley,  where  a  terrace  rises  to  a  considerable  hight 
above  the  flood  plane  from  which  water  is  continuously 
but  slowly  oozing  from  the  ground  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  keep  it  swampy  and  unfit  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. In  many  such  cases  the  water  can  be  led  out 
by  underdraining  upon  lower  lands  and  stored  in  res- 
ervoirs to  become  warm,  and  then  applied  to  the  sur- 
face for  irrigation,  at  the  same  time  rendering  the  land 
from  which  the  water  has  been  withdrawn  fit  for  cul- 
tivation, as  described  previously  in  this  book.  Besides 
the  deeper  artesian  waters  which  are  available  in  many 
localities  for  irrigation  purposes,  there  are  a  larger 
number  of  places  where  flowing  wells  of  the  artesian 
type  may  be  sunk  and  their  waters  used  for  the  irriga- 
tion of  small  areas.  In  these  cases  the  water  may 
often  be  raised  to  a  hight  of  several  feet  above  ground 
and  thence  led  away  to  .where  it  would  be  valuable  for 
irrigation  in  either  a  kitchen  or  market  garden.  Often 
such  wells  will  supply  the  equivalent  of  a  i-inch 
stream  flowing  four  miles  an  hour,  which  is  water 
enough  to  irrigate  to  a  depth  of  four  inches  every  ten 
days  2.42  acres  of  land,  or  about  five  times  the  area  a 
3-inch  piston  pump  with  a  12-inch  stroke  will  raise 
when  working  eight  hours  a  day  and  making  thirty 
strokes  a  minute. 

The  Eastern  Duty  of  Water. — The  amount  of 
water  needed  for  irrigation  varies  within  wide  limits, 
being  affe<5led  by  the  climate,  weather,  kind  of  soil, 
variety  of  crop,  manner  of  application  of  the  water,  and 
by  the  cuara<5ter  of  cultivation  which  the  field  receives 


IRRIGATION   IN   HUMID   CI.IMATES.  46 1 

subsequent  to  irrigation.  The  amount  needed  for  a 
single  watering  must  be  determined  by  the  quantity 
of  water  the  soil  contains  at  the  time  it  is  to  be  irri- 
gated, and  by  the  amount  it  should  contain  in  order 
that  plants  should  work  to  the  best  advantage.  The 
maximum  capacity  of  upland  field  soils  for  water 
ranges  from  eighteen  per  cent,  of  their  dry  weight  for 
the  light  sandy  types  to  about  thirty  per  cent,  for  the 
heavy  clayey  varieties,  while  the  amounts  of  water 
these  soils  should  contain  in  order  that  plants  may 
thrive  in  them  best  is  from  twelve  to  fourteen  per  cent, 
for  the  former  and  from  eighteen  to  twenty  per  cent, 
for  the  latter.  Since  water  should  be  applied  as  soon 
as  the  water  content  of  the  sandy  soil  falls  to  eight  per 
cent. ,  and  that  of  the  clayey  soil  to  fourteen  per  cent. , 
it  follows  that  under  these  conditions  10.5  pounds  of 
water,  or  two  inches,  is  the  maximum  amount  which 
would  be  needed  to  fill  the  surface  foot  of  sandy  soil, 
and  12.8  pounds,  or  2.46  inches,  is  enough  to  fill  the 
surface  foot  of  clay  soil. 

If  we  consider  the  second  foot  of  soil  to  have  been 
dried  out  to  a  corresponding  extent,  and  that  it  is  de- 
sirable to  also  saturate  this  with  water,  then  the 
amounts  just  stated  would  need  to  be  doubled.  In 
humid  irrigation  not  more  than  800  to  1,500  barrels  an 
acre  should  be  applied  at  one  time,  for  if  heavy  rains 
should  follow  the  ground  may  be  saturated.  Even 
with  the  most  thorough  cultivation,  anywhere  from  a 
half  inch  to  two  inches  of  water  a  week  can  be  used  to 
advantage  by  vegetables  during  May,  June,  July  and 
August,  and  unless  the  natural  supply  available  ap- 
proximates this  amount,  it  should  be  supplied  arti- 


462  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

ficially  in  proportion  to  the  charadler  of  the  soil  and 
season  and  the  needs  of  the  crop,  at  least  one  inch 
being  taken  as  an  average  for  each  application  for  good 
garden  soils.  In  this  connedlion  the  writer  would  like 
to  suggest  that  drainage  is  of  more  vital  importance 
than  in  the  arid  region,  where  provision  is  largely 
made  for  such  emergencies  by  the  laws  of  nature.  The 
principles  and  methods  of  irrigation  as  outlined  so 
minutely  throughout  *'  Irrigation  Farming,"  are  fully 
applicable  to  the  needs  of  eastern  farmers,  and  they 
cannot  go  very  greatly  amiss  by  following  the  instruc- 
tions to  the  letter. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
WINTER    IRRIGATION. 


^TT^  HIS  subjec5l  is  a  matter  which  has  become  of 
*         paramount   importance    throughout  the  arid 

^^«l  region  during  the  past  decade,  and  we  can  see 
on  every  hand  the  beneficent  influences  of  the 
system  wherever  it  has  been  conscientiously  carried 
out.  The  possibiHty  of  storing  water  in  the  soil  dur- 
ing winter  is  better  understood  yearly  and  the  pradlice 
is  rapidly  becoming  more  general.  Right  here  it  must 
be  understood  by  those  unacquainted  with  the  circum- 
stances that  the  great  plains  of  arid  America  are  prac- 
tically snowless  throughout  the  winter  months,  and 
for  this  reason  the  running  of  water  during  the  milder 
hibernal  days  is  a  very  easy  and  simple  task  when  the 
supply  is  available.  In  parts  of  Kansas  it  has  been 
found  possible  to  store  enough  water  in  the  soil  by 
winter  irrigation  to  mature  the  summer's  crops.  In 
Colorado  it  is  quite  common  to  give  all  kinds  of  plowed 
land  a  good  wetting  early  in  winter  and  often  again  in 
midwinter.  There  are  large  ranches  in  Wyoming 
with  a  limited  supply  of  water  on  which  irrigation  is 
systematically  given  to  hay  land  in  the  winter  to  sup- 
ply moisture  for  the  coming  crop.  Such  pradlice  en- 
ables the  owner  to  double  the  amount  of  meadow  from 
which  to  cut  hay.  The  land  supplied  with  moisture 
in  the  winter  is  not  necessarily  irrigated  during  the 
summer  months,  and  the  summer  supply  is  used  on 

463 


464  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

separate  areas.  This  pradlice  is  in  full  accord  with 
the  old  eastern  idea  of  our  boyhood  days  which  pro- 
claimed that  a  wet  fall  on  meadow  or  pasture  always 
predidled  a  fine  growth  of  grass  and  a  good  hay  crop 
the  following  summer. 

Winter  Evaporation. — It  is  a  fadl  well  under- 
stood by  observers  that  evaporation  from  the  surface 
goes  on  at  all  times  and  under  all  conditions  of  tem- 
perature, but  is  naturally  least  rapid  during  the  colder 
months  of  the  year,  and  especially  when  the  ground  is 
frozen.  Water  put  on  the  ground  late  in  the  fall  and 
during  the  winter  will  sink  deeper  and  deeper  into  the 
subsoil  before  its  downward  course  is  stopped  by  sur- 
face evaporation.  While  ordinarily  in  the  summer- 
time an  inch  of  water  will  wet  down  from  four  to  six 
inches  of  soil,  in  the  winter  this  same  amount  of  water 
will  sink  to  nearly  thrice  this  depth,  or  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches,  and  will  remain  there  until  withdrawn 
by  solar  capillarity  in  the  warm  days  of  early  summer. 
It  is  quite  pra<5lical  to  have  the  ground  wet  down  five 
or  six  feet,  so  it  will  freeze  as  deep  as  possible.  If  it 
is  thoroughly  wet,  it  is  surprising  how  deep  the  frost 
will  penetrate.  If  this  land  is  plowed  in  proper  con- 
dition scarcely  a  clod  will  be  found,  nor  will  a  roller  or 
float  have  to  be  used.  Very  little  water  will  be  re- 
quired during  the  following  season.  Crops  on  such 
land  will  withstand  any  amount  of  dry  wind,  and  will 
be  doubly  produdlive  in  comparison  with  crops  grown 
entirely  by  summer  irrigation.  If  the  subsoil  is  thor- 
oughly wet  the  succeeding  season  will  indeed  be  a  rare 
one  that  will  not  produce  a  crop  of  barley,  oats,  or  wheat 
by  the  ordinary  rains  of  spring. 


WINTER  IRRIGATION.  465 

There  are  successive  winters  when  there  is  not 
enough  rain  or  snow  to  wet  the  subsoil,  hence  the 
spring  and  summer  rains  fall  on  a  soil  unfavorable  by 
its  dryness  to  make  proper  use  of  the  water,  and 
instead  of  soaking  into  the  earth  to  any  depth  it  runs 
off  rapidly  or  evaporates.  Enough  rain  may  fall  in  the 
spring  to  mature  a  fair  crop,  provided  the  subsoil  is 
sufficiently  wet  from  winter  irrigation.  Many  fruit 
and  forest  trees  die  from  the  lack  of  moisture  in  the 
subsoil  in  winter.  Rain  may  keep  the  surface  soil  in 
moist  condition,  sufficiently  so  to  produce  growth,  but 
the  feeding  rootlets  having  penetrated  the  dry  subsoil, 
cannot  obtain  enough  moisture  to  equaHze  the  evapo- 
ration going  on  through  the  leaves,  thus  starving  the 
tree  to  death. 

Some  Valuable  Experiments.— The  value  of 
conserving  moisture  on  fruit  lands  by  mulches  through 
the  winter  has  long  been  understood  and  is  widely  prac- 
ticed by  many  farmers,  and  the  value  of  winter  irri- 
gation for  orchards  is  no  longer  questioned.  As  we  have 
said,  the  winters  are  long  and  dry  in  the  arid  region, 
there  is  no  continuous  mulch  of  snow,  and  the  orchard- 
ist  who  cannot  irrigate  late  in  the  fall  or  occasionally 
through  the  winter  is  unfortunate.  The  value  of  irri- 
gating alfalfa  in  the  fall  has  been  tested  by  a  friend  of  the 
writer.  Alfalfa  irrigated  late  in  the  season,  0(5lober  2d 
and  3d,  did  not  winter-kill  as  badly  as  that  not  irri- 
gated. The  quantity  applied  cannot  be  estimated 
accurately,  but  as  nearly  as  can  be  estimated  enough 
was  used  to  cover  the  land  six  inches  deep.  The 
plants  which  were  fall  irrigated  started  earlier  in  the 
spring  and  made  better  growth,  at  one  time  being  four 


466  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

to  five  inches  higher  than  those  not  so  irrigated,  and 
the  dividing  line  marked  by  the  water  could  be  traced 
up  to  the  time  of  first  cutting.  In  spite  of  the  fadl 
that  evaporation  was  sufficient  to  remove  nearly  or 
quite  all  of  this  water  during  the  winter  months,  its 
influence  was  felt  far  into  the  following  growing  season. 
It  must  be  understood  by  foreign  readers  that  such  a 
wetting  could  be  applied  only  to  the  extraordinary  dry 
soils  of  the  arid  region,  where  heaving  out  by  frost  ex- 
pansion is  unknown,  and  the  writer  very  much  doubts 
if  such  pradlice  would  be  advisable  on  the  more  moist 
soils  of  the  east. 

On  land  in  the  dry  zone  used  for  the  produ<5lion  of 
cultivated  crops,  where  the  surface  soil  can  be  stirred 
frequently  to  prevent  loss  of  water  by  evaporation, 
winter  irrigation  is  far  more  e£fe<5live  than  on  grass 
land.  Such  irrigation  has  been  pradliced  somewhat 
successfully  in  Colorado  and  Utah  by  potato  growers. 
The  fields  are  flooded  before  plowing  and  allowed  to 
dry  to  a  tillable  condition.  This  treatment  insures 
perfedl  condition  of  soil  for  working  and  for  the  first 
growth  of  the  plants.  The  ordinary  methods  of  cul- 
tivation follow  in  this  system  without  the  application 
of  water  until  the  plants  are  in  bloom.  In  parts  of 
California,  water  supplied  to  the  land  during  the  win- 
ter or  wet  season  is  often  sufficient  to  mature  crops, 
although  they  may  not  receive  any  water  between 
planting  and  harvesting,  and  the  same  is  true  in  Utah. 
In  such  places  complete  and  continuous  cultivation  is 
pradliced  to  prevent  the  soil  from  losing  its  store  of 
moisture  through  evaporation.  It  is  necessary  to  con- 
tinually stir  the  surface  to  form  a  natural  mulch. 


WINTER  IRRIGATION.  467 

It  has  been  found  by  nearly  all  observant  irrigators 
of  the  great  plains  that  winter  irrigation,  thoroughly 
done,  serves  very  well  the  double  process  of  fertilizing 
and  moistening.  Captain  Perry,  of  Kansas,  says  that 
after  ten  years  of  extensive  experience  in  irrigation  he 
has  had  the  best  average  results  by  thoroughly  satu- 
rating the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  during 
fall  or  winter  or  very  early  spring,  then  cultivating 
crops  on  this  land  without  subsequent  irrigation.  C. 
B.  Huffman,  of  Enterprise,  Kansas,  has  found  that 
land  thoroughly  irrigated  and  well  cultivated  during 
winter,  and  afterward  sown  in  wheat,  produced  surpris- 
ingly well  without  any  irrigation  after  the  wheat  was 
sown,  while  similar  land  that  had  not  been  irrigated 
gave  a  very  poor  yield.  The  general  experience  favors 
winter  irrigation.  Not  unlikely,  future  prac5tice  in  the 
application  of  water  will  consist  in  thoroughly  wetting 
the  soil  during  the  winter  and  in  such  subsequent  irri- 
gation as  may  be  found  desirable  to  maintain  maxi- 
mum growth,  the  larger  quantity  of  water  being 
applied  in  winter  when  evaporation  is  at  a  minimum. 

Orchards  in  Winter. — Throughout  the  irrigated 
regions  of  the  west  it  has  been  the  prevailing  pra<5lice 
with  orchardists  to  withhold  water  from  trees  during 
September  and  Oc5tober  in  order  to  let  the  new  wood 
ripen,  then  give  one  irrigation  late  in  November, 
with  no  other  applications  until  after  the  buds  blossom 
in  spring.  The  reasons  for  this  method  of  treatment 
were  founded  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  trees  did  not 
need  water  during  the  winter  months  when  they  were 
dormant,  and  that  by  keeping  off  the  water  the  fruit 
buds  could  be  retarded  from  blossoming  too  early  in 


^NfZ-^''^ 


468  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

the  spring.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  no  objedlion  can 
be  raised  against  withholding  water  while  the  young 
wood  is  ripening,  but  that  by  keeping  water  from  the 
trees  in  the  spring  the  blossoms  are  held  back  has  been 
shown  to  be  a  fallacious  idea.  The  fa(5l  is  that  the 
bursting  of  the  bud  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
state  of  the  outside  and  surrounding  atmosphere.  It 
is  a  well-established  fac5l  that  the  application  of  water 
to  the  roots  puts  off  rather  than  hastens  the  blossom- 
ing period  by  the  chill  that  has  been  introduced  to  the 
ground. 

The  mistaken  notion  about  trees  needing  no  irri- 
gation during  winter  has  no  doubt  arisen  from  two 
sources:  There  is  a  popular  delusion  that  the  tree  is 
dormant  during  winter.  Any  one  who  has  heeled  in 
young  trees  in  the  fall  and  lifted  them  again  in  spring 
cannot  have  failed  to  notice  that  the  roots  have  made 
growth  during  the  interval.  Moreover,  by  careful 
measurement  it  has  been  proved  that  even  the  trunks 
of  trees,  and  doubtless  also  the  branches,  adlually 
increase  in  girth  during  the  winter  months.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  the  tree  is  in  adlive  growth  dur- 
ing winter  and  is  laying  up  a  store  of  energy  for  the 
coming  summer.  If  the  tree  during  that  period 
suffers  from  drouth,  its  vitality  must  necessarily  be 
weakened. 

People  have  been  told  that  in  California  it  is  not 
customary  to  irrigate  orchards  during  winter.  They, 
however,  have  not  taken  into  consideration  the  fadl 
that  heavy  rains  fall  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  whereas  in  the  region  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
the  winter  months  are  the  dry  season.     Furthermore, 


WINTER  IRRIGATION.  469 

if  we  look  at  those  countries  where  fruit  grows  to  the 
greatest  perfecflion  without  irrigation,  we  see  that  they 
have  their  principal  rainfall  during  the  winter.  This 
is  true  in  the  south  of  France,  where  nature  gives  a 
valuable  lesson  on  the  application  of  water  to  fruit  trees 
during  the  hibernal  rest.  The  writer  has  observed  two 
large  peach  orchards  on  similar  land  and  within  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  of  each  other,  one  of  which  was  not 
irrigated  during  winter,  while  the  other  received  three 
or  four  copious  irrigations.  The  peach  blossoms 
opened  a  few  days  later  in  the  irrigated  of  chard,  but 
its  fruit  ripened  at  least  a  week  ahead  of  that  in  the  other 
orchard.  The  moisture  of  the  soil  probably  tended 
to  keep  the  air  cool  around  the  irrigated  trees  and  so 
retarded  the  blossoms,  but  when  the  fruit  on  these  trees 
started  to  grow  it  rapidly  overtook  that  on  the  others, 
which,  owing  to  lack  of  moisture,  were  deficient  in 
vitality,  whereas  the  irrigated  trees  were  in  condition 
to  devote  all  their  energies  to  the  development  of  fruit. 
In  the  Mesilla  valley  of  New  Mexico  it  has  been  cus- 
tomary to  hill  up  grape-vines  with  earth  in  November 
and  to  apply  water  during  the  winter.  The  cold  is 
not  feared  so  much  as  the  dry  winds  in  the  early 
months  of  spring.  The  writer  called  editorial  atten- 
tion to  this  fadl  in  the  Field  and  Farm  several  years 
ago,  and  as  a  result  nearly  all  the  vineyards  around 
Denver  and  elsewhere  in  Colorado  are  now  treated  in 
this  manner  as  the  complete  means  for  winter  pro- 
tedlion. 

Depth  of  Saturation. — A  winter-irrigated  or- 
chard in  Southern  Arizona  was  once  tested  to  deter- 
mine the  moisture  content  of  the  soil.     A  sample  of 


470  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

each  foot  from  the  surface  to  ground  water  was  taken 
during  April,  May,  June,  and  September.  In  taking 
the  samples  of  soil,  roots  were  encountered  in  abun- 
dance as  deep  as  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet,  while  one 
peach  root  was  followed  into  the  twentieth  foot  at  a 
horizontal  distance  of  eighteen  feet  from  the  tree, 
showing  that  the  water  of  at  least  the  upper  twenty 
feet  could  be  used  by  the  trees.  The  upper  five  and  a 
half  feet  was  clayey  loam;  the  next  nine  feet  gravel; 
then  about  a  foot  of  clay;  then  another  foot  of  gravel, 
and  the  rest  of  the  way  to  water  a  fine  clay.  Hence 
the  roots  had  passed  through  ten  feet  of  gravel  and 
four  feet  at  least  into  the  clay  beneath. 

The  total  results  indicated  that  the  irrigating  water 
had  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  twenty-four  feet.  The 
sixteenth  foot  contained  the  most  moisture,  the  soil 
being  so  nearly  saturated  that  it  was  muddy.  From 
this  point  the  moisture  was  less  abundant  until  the 
twenty-sixth  foot  was  reached.  From  here  the  per- 
centage of  water  increased  gradually  until  ground 
water  was  found  at  thirty-four  feet.  Samples  taken 
as  late  as  September  showed  that  while  the  upper  fif- 
teen feet  were  comparatively  dry  the  lower  extremities 
of  the  roots  were  still  surrounded  by  moist  soil.  The 
conditions  above  ground  were  very  satisfactory.  The 
trees  grew  thriftily  and  maintained  vigorous  appear- 
ance throughout  the  season.  They  were  well  loaded 
with  fruit,  the  peaches  and  apricots  being  larger  than 
the  previous  year  when  the  orchard  was  irrigated 
frequently  during  the  summer. 

Preventing  Frost. — The  claim  has  often  been 
set  up  that  irrigation  will  assist  greatly  in  saving  ten- 


WINTER   IRRIGATION.  47 1 

der  vegetation  from  early  spring  frosts.  Fruit  buds 
may  stand  a  temperature  of  twenty-six  and  come  out 
with  a  little  harm  where  other  conditions  are  reason- 
ably favorable.  A  temperature  of  twenty-two  usually 
proves  fatal.  The  temperature  to  drop  suddenly  to 
the  freezing-point,  thirty-two,  has  not  often  resulted 
in  much  harm.  Observation  shows  that  anything 
which  tends  to  raise  the  dew  point  lessens  the  damage 
from  a  freeze.  That  is,  should  the  dew  point  be  raised 
to  nearly  thirty- two  or  above  there  will  be  no  harm. 
An  increase  of  humidity  in  the  atmosphere  raises  the 
dew  point.  Accidental  irrigation  of  vegetable  and 
fruit  plants  on  the  afternoon  and  evening  preceding 
some  severe  freezes  has  shown  that  the  plats  so  irri- 
gated were  protected.  Doubtless  there  is  considerable 
latent  heat  set  free  in  the  cooling  of  flowing  waters 
and  ditches  down  to  the  freezing-point. 

At  any  rate,  numerous  instances  are  at  hand  show- 
ing that  those  who  spray  their  vegetables  or  fruit  trees 
during  the  night  of  a  spring  freeze  save  their  vege- 
tables and  fruits,  while  unsprayed  plants  200  feet  away 
are  cut  down  by  frost.  Those  who  happened  to  be  irri- 
gating plats  of  melons  or  other  produces  the  same  night 
found  that  as  far  as  the  water  extended,  tender  vege- 
tables and  fruit  plantations  were  saved.  Numerous  in- 
stances have  fully  illustrated  this  fa^.  Others  have 
saved  strawberry  bloom  by  maintaining  a  smudge 
through  a  particularly  critical  night.  Ordinarily  we 
have  in  each  spring  but  one  dangerous  night,  and  if  by 
a  combination  of  watering  and  smudging  harm  can  be 
averted,  the  expense  is  so  light  and  the  returns  are  so 
marked  over  negledl  that  both  of  these  methods  seem 


472  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

well  worthy  the  attention  of  orchardists  and  planters 
everywhere.  Observation  seems  to  show  that  the  pro- 
te<5lion  afforded  by  copious  watering  is  very  much 
greater  than  that  by  smudging. 

The  irrigation  planter  fortunately  has  both  of  these 
safeguards  available,  and  with  the  aid  of  them  should 
almost  certainly  protedl  his  crop  each  season.  It  is 
wise,  therefore,  to  be  prepared,  that  the  ditches  should 
be  in  running  order,  the  laterals  cleaned  up,  and  every- 
thing in  readiness  to  apply  water  at  the  critical  time. 
Accumulated  waste  material,  stable  litter,  chaff,  straw, 
brush,  anything  that  will  make  a  smoke,  should  like- 
wise be  accumulated  on  the  windward  side  of  the 
plantation  in  readiness  to  make  use  of  both  materials 
for  averting  the  danger  arising  from  the  occasional 
freezes  wtich  have  sometimes  become  destrudlive  to 
orchard  and  vegetable  produ<5ls. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
THE    COMMON     LAW    OF    IRRIGATION. 


"IP  ARLY  in  the  history  of  agriculture  in  the  arid 
•*^  I  regions  of  the  west,  it  became  apparent  that 
^^1  the  common  law,  rules  and  principles  of  ripa- 
rian ownership  could  not  obtain;  such  laws 
would  have  been  unjust,  and  were  wholly  unsuited  to 
the  condition  of  affairs  there  found  to  exist,  and  the 
people  set  about  to  discover  principles  and  formulate 
rules  which  might  be  more  just  and  equitable.  The 
questions  are  numerous  and  complex,  the  whole  mat- 
ter is  fraught  with  problems  most  difficult,  new 
theories  are  constantly  arising,  and  the  greatest  diver- 
sity of  views  exists  among  those  who  have  given  years 
of  close  and  careful  study  to  the  subjecfl  ;  and  how  far 
the  people  have  succeeded  in  their  efforts  to  solve  these 
questions  can  only  be  determined  by  a  careful  exam- 
ination of  the  statutes  and  decisions  of  those  States 
and  Territories  where  the  subjedl  of  irrigation  has 
commanded  the  attention  of  profound  thinkers  and 
able  jurists.  The  writer's  humble  opinion  is  that  the 
laws  upon  these  subjedls  are  far  from  perfe<5l  in  any 
se(5lion  of  the  arid  country,  and  he  furthermore  believes 
that  many  years  of  evolution  and  change  in  these  laws 
will  be  necessary  before  anything  approaching  a  just 
exposition  of  the  principle  applicable  will  assume  a 
definite  form. 

473 


474  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

The  Colorado  Constitution,  Sec.  5,  Art.  XVI,  de- 
clares the  water  of  every  natural  stream  to  be  the 
property  of  the  public,  and  Section  6  in  substance  gives 
the  prior  right  to  the  prior  appropriator  to  beneficial 
use.  The  underlying  principle  seems  to  be  that  the 
water  of  all  natural  streams  belongs  to  the  public  until 
appropriated  to  beneficial  use,  and  then  to  the  prior 
appropriator,  and  these  principles  with  slight  varia- 
tions more  or  less  well  defined  are  the  basis  of  the  laws 
upon  the  subjedl  in  other  States  and  Territories,  where 
for  natural  reasons  the  rules  of  the  common  law  do  not 
obtain. 

The  common  law  rules  and  principles  of  riparian 
ownership  never  obtained  in  Colorado.  The  Consti- 
tution, Sees.  5  and  6,  Art.  XVI,  declaring  the  waters 
of  all  natural  streams  to  be  the  property  of  the  public 
until  appropriated  to  beneficial  use,  and  that  it  then 
belongs  to  the  prior  appropriator,  is  only  declaratory 
of  an  unwritten  law  which  existed  long  prior  to  any 
legislation  or  judicial  decision  upon  the  subjedl,  and 
arose  from  the  peculiar  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 


Schilling  vs.  Rominger, 

4     Col. 

103 

Thomas    vs.  Guiraud, 

6     Id. 

532 

Coffin        vs.  Left  Hand  Ditch  Co., 

Id. 

446 

And  the  various  a<5ls  of  Congress  upon  the  subje<5l 
are  but  the  recognition  of  a  pre-existing  right,  and  not 
the  establishment  of  a  new  one. 

Broder  vs.  Water  Co.,  loi  U.  S.     276 

Waters  in  the  various  streams  of  this  climate 
acquire  a  value   unknown   in   moister  climates  ;   the 


THK  COMMON  LAW  O^  IRRIGATION.  475 

right  to  its  use  is  not  a  mere  incident  to  the  soil,  but 
rises  to  the  dignity  of  a  distindl  usufrudluary  estate. 

Coffin  vs.  Left  Hand  Ditch  Co.,  Supra. 

Rominger  z/j.  Squires,  9  Col.         329 

It  may  safely  be  said  that  in  all  the  States  and 
Territories,  where,  as  in  Colorado,  these  rights  are  of 
peculiar  and  paramount  importance,  they  are  treated 
as  realty.  The  Colorado  Legislature  in  1893  (L.  93  p. 
293)  enadled  that  thereafter  all  conveyances  of  such 
rights  should  be  by  deed  with  usual  formalities;  but  in 
ordinary  cases  such  was  probably  the  law  before  the 
enadlment. 


Yonker    vs. 

Nichols, 

I 

Col. 

551 

Hill          vs. 

Newman, 

5 

Col. 

445 

Schilling  vs. 

Rominger, 

4 

Col. 

100 

Barkley    vs. 

Tickele, 

2 

Mont. 

59 

Smith        vs. 

O'Hara, 

43 

Cal. 

371 

The  right  when  vested  may  in  some  cases  be  ap- 
purtenant to  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  used,  but  gener- 
ally it  is  separate  and  distin<5l  from  the  ownership  of 
the  land,  and  a  conveyance  of  the  latter  would  not 
carry  the  water  right,  unless  mentioned  in  the  deed  ; 
the  right,  though  it  can  only  be  acquired  by  appropria- 
tion and  use,  may,  when  acquired,  be  sold,  transferred 
to  and  used  upon  other  lands. 

Fuller  vs.  Swan  River  P.  M.  Co.,  12     Col.       17 

The  place  of  use  as  well  as  the  point  of  diversion 
may  be  changed,  when  such  change  works  no  injury 
to  others. 

Fuller  vs.  Swan  River  P.  M.  Co.,  Supra 


-476  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

The  right  is  in  no  way  dependent  upon  the  locus  of 
its  application  to  the  beneficial  and  designed. 

Hammond  vs.  Rose,  11     Col.     526 

The  lands  irrigated  need  not  be  on  the  banks,  nor 
even  in  the  vicinity  of  the  stream  from  which  the 
water  is  taken.  The  water  may  be  condudled  across 
a  watershed  and  onto  a  different  drainage  and  yet  the 
right  is  preserved. 

Coffin  vs.  Left  Hand  Ditch  Co.,  Supra 

The  right  is  absolute  and  unqualified  so  long  as  it 
exists.     It  may  not  be  lost  by  abandonment. 

Siber  vs.  Frink,  7     Col.     154 

Dorr  vs.  Hammond,  Id.         83 

Burnham  vs.  Freeman,  n     Id.       601 

But  proof  of  non-user  as  evidence  of  abandonment 
must  be  strong;  failure  for  an  unreasonable  length  of 
time  to  use  the  water  may  afford  a  presumption  of  in- 
tention to  abandon  the  right,  still  such  presumption 
may  be  overcome  by  satisfactory  proofs. 

Siber  vs.  Frink,  Supra 

An  intention  to  abandon  may  be  shown  in  various 
ways.  It  has  been  held  that  an  attempted  verbal 
transfer  or  sale  of  the  right  operates  as  an  abandon- 
ment, as  it  conveys  nothing  and  manifests  an  intention 
to  part  with  the  right. 

Smith  vs.  O'Hara  and  Barkley  vs.  Tickele,  Supra 

But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  as  abandonment 
is  a  question  of  intention,  the  a(5ls  of  the  party  to  be 


THK   COMMON   LAW   OF   IRRIGATION.  477 

conclusive  (unless  there  be  some  element  of  estoppel) 
must  be  so  very  strong  as  to  scarcely  be  susceptible  of 
explanation.  The  party  will  not  be  held  to  have  sur- 
rendered a  valuable  right,  except  upon  evidence  reason- 
ably clear  and  satisfadlory. 

Rominger  vs.  Squires,  Supra 

Doubtless  a  party  may  also  lose  his  right  by  non- 
use,  and  as  the  right  is  regarded  as  realty,  it  is  prob- 
able that  by  analogy,  at  least,  the  laws  of  limitation 
and  prescription  apply;  it  seems  that  acquiescence  in 
adverse  use  during  the  period  fixed  by  the  statutes  of 
limitation  would  bar  the  right. 


Union  Water  Co. 

vs.  Crary, 

25 

Cal. 

504 

Davis 

vs.  Gale, 

32 

Id. 

26 

Smith 

vs.  Logan, 

18 

Nev. 

149 

Woolman 

vs.  Garringer, 

I 

Mont, 

535 

Crandal 

vs.  Woods, 

8 

Cal. 

136 

The  continual  use  of  water  for  beneficial  purposes  is 
essential  to  the  existence  of  the  right;  and  when  the 
right  is  lost  either  by  abandonment  or  non-use,  it  goes 
either  to  the  next  prior  appropriator  or  reverts  to  the 
public. 

It  is  not  believed  that  a  user  for  any  length  of  time 
will  give  title  by  prescription  or  limitation  as  against 
the  government. 

Union  Ms.  M.  Co.  vs.  Ferris,  2  Saw.  176 

Matthews                  vs.  Ferrea,  45  Cal.  51 

Ogburn                     vs.  Comer,  46  Id.  346 

Van  Sickle                vs.  Hains,  7  Nev.  24 ) 


47^  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

The  right  in  this  respec5l  is  of  much  the  same  nature 
as  the  possessory  right  to  public  lands,  and  when  aban- 
doned it  reverts  to  the  government  and  is  subjec5l  to 
appropriation  by  any  one  else;  or  he  may  return, 
reappropriate  and  acquire  all  his  original  rights,  if  the 
claim  of  no  one  else  intervenes. 

Tucker  vs.  Jones,  19     Pac.  Rep.  (Mont.)     571 

It  was  never  designed  that  these  rights  should  be 
held  without  use  for  beneficial  purpose,  and  in  this  a 
**  water  right,"  so-called,  lacks  one  of  the  qualities  of 
realty  or  title  to  the  land.  It  is  probable  that  any  one 
possessing  a  water  right  and  failing  to  use  the  same  for 
a  continuous  period  equal  to  that  of  the  statute  of 
limitations  would  lose  the  right,  but  if  at  any  time 
during  that  period  he  had  used  it  the  right  would  still 
exist;  and  herein  is  a  defedl  in  the  law,  for  no  one 
having  acquired  so  valuable  a  right  should  be  per- 
mitted to  withhold  the  use  from  others,  unless  he  use 
the  same  himself,  and  even  if  the  law  would  permit 
others  to  condemn  the  right  the  remedy  would,  in  most 
cases,  be  tedious,  expensive,  and  barren  of  benefit. 
The  principle  herein  announced,  that  the  existence  of 
the  right  depends  upon  the  user,  is  in  consonance  with 
the  Constitution,  and  all  reasoning  upon  the  subject; 
but  the  courts,  by  way  of  construc5lion,  give  the 
possessor  of  the  right  the  privilege  of  non-user,  and 
thus  nullify  the  spirit  of  the  law.  The  loss  of  his 
right  is  made  to  depend  upon  his  intention,  i.e.,  aban- 
donment, when  he  should  be  held  to  a  reasonably  con- 
tinuous use  of  the  right,  or  allow  it  to  revert  to  the 
public.     In  the  present  condition  of  the  law  in  Colo- 


THE   COMMON   LAW   OF   IRRIGATION.  479 

rado,  as  established  by  these  decisions,  were  it  not  for 
the  legal  and  physical  impossibility  of  preventing  the 
water  of  natural  streams  from  being  used  by  settlers 
who  need  the  same  for  irrigation,  a  monopoly  of  non- 
using  proprietors  could,  and  might  be,  maintained,  to 
the  serious  detriment  of  the  agricultural  interests  of 
the  State,  and  an  express  statute  of  limitation  upon 
this  subjedl  would  avert  any  evil  from  the  source  indi- 
cated. One  holding  a  water  right  should  be  required 
to  use  the  same  for  a  beneficial  purpose  every  year  or 
else  forfeit  his  right,  and  the  Colorado  Legislature  has 
latterly  provided  a  statute  covering  the  exigencies  of 
such  a  circumstance. 

Acquisition  of  the  Right. — The  right  can  only 
be  acquired  by  appropriation  and  application  to  bene- 
ficial use,  and  the  true  test  is  the  successful  application 
to  the  beneficial  use  designed ;  and  the  method  or 
means  of  diverting  or  carrying  the  same  is  immaterial. 

Thomas  z/j.  Guinard,  6     Col.    533 

Farmers  H.  L.  Canal  &  R.  R.  Co.  z/j^.  Southworth,    13     Id.      114 

An  erroneous  notion  for  some  time  prevailed  that 
the  constru(5lion  of  a  ditch  with  a  given  capacity  was 
equivalent  to  the  appropriation  of  water  to  the  capacity 
of  the  ditch,  but  recent  decisions  have  exploded  that 
idea.  A  party  may  employ  any  means  he  chooses  to 
condudl  the  water  from  the  stream  to  the  lands  irri- 
gated ;  open  physical  acfts,  such  as  the  construdlion  of 
a  ditch,  flume,  or  other  conduit  is  usually  evidence  of, 
but  does  not  constitute,  appropriation.  But  our  courts 
have,  by  a  line  of  decisions,  established  what  may  be 


48o  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

termed  constru^ive  as  distinguished  from  atlual  appro- 
priation. 

Siber                                             vs.  Frink,  Supra 

Larimer  Co.  Res.  Co.              vs.  People,  8  Col.    617 

Wheeler                                      z/j.  N.  Col.  Irr.  Co..  10  Id.      588 

Farmers'  H.  L.  C.  &  R.  Co.  vs.  Southworth.  13  Id.      115 

These  decisions  have  led  to  much  confusion  and 
uncertainty,  and  the  do(5lrine  will  be  fruitful  of  litiga- 
tion. It  is  said  that  when  a  person  commences  the 
construdlion  of  a  ditch,  tapping  a  stream  and  there- 
after within  a  reasonable  time  completes  his  ditch  and 
diverts  and  applies  the  water  to  beneficial  use,  his 
right  thus  acquired  relates  back  to  the  time  of  the 
commencement  of  the  construcftion  of  the  ditch.  The 
Constitution  seems  to  give  the  right  to  the  first  actual 
appropriator  to  beneficial  use,  but  the  courts  have  ap- 
parently engrafted  a  new  principle  upon  that  instru- 
ment— the  term  ' '  reasonable  time, ' '  uncertain  and 
indefinite  in  itself,  becomes  more  so  when  applied  to 
the  various  cases  which  arise  under  these  laws.  No 
man  knows  or  can  know  what  is  a  *  *  reasonable  time ' ' 
in  a  given  case  until  the  courts  have  passed  upon  the 
case.  What  might  be  considered  reasonable  in  one 
case  might  be  considered  unreasonable  in  another, 
even  under  circumstances  somewhat  similar.  * '  Rea- 
sonable diligence ' '  is  said  not  to  imply  unusual  or  ex- 
traordinary effort.  It  is  also  said  that  sickness  and 
lack  of  pecuniary  means,  being  matters  incident  to  the 
person  and  not  to  the  enterprise,  will  not  excuse  great 
delay,  and  hence  it  follows  that  health  and  wealth, 
being  also  incident  to  the  person  only,  are  not  matters 


THK   COMMOn   LAW   OF  IRRIGATION.  48 1 

to  be  considered,  and  the  difficulty  is  that  there  is  no 
fixed  standard  or  rule  by  which  the  claimant  may  be 
governed  in  determining  what  is  or  would  be  con- 
sidered '  *  reasonable  time  "  or  "  reasonable  diligence. ' ' 
The  Use  Must  Be  Beneficial. — The  use  must 
be  truly  beneficial,  and  the  appropriation  must  not  be 
excessive,  nor  for  speculative  purposes.  And  in  deter- 
mining these  questions  the  amount  of  water  appropri- 
ated, the  use  to  which  the  same  is  applied,  the  quantity 
of  land,  characfter  of  soil,  etc.,  are  to  be  considered. 

Combs  vs.  A.  D.  Co.,  17     Col. 

The  charac5ler,  value  and  extent  of  the  crops,  and 
their  need  of  water  for  irrigation,  should  also  be  con- 
sidered, and  the  waste  of  any  ditch,  flume,  pipe-line, 
or  other  conduit,  should  be  the  loss  of  the  claimant. 

* '  Natural  streams ' '  are  not  easily  defined  in  terms 
which  will  admit  of  universal  application.  It  is  said 
that  to  constitute  a  water  course  there  must  be  a  de- 
fined channel  with  bed  and  banks. 


Barnes         vs. 

Sabron, 

ID 

Nev.          217 

Simmonds  vs. 

Winters  (Oregon), 

27 

Pac.  Rep.     7 

Barkley       vs. 

Wilcox, 

86 

N.  Y.         143 

Gibbs           vs. 

Williams, 

25 

Kansas      220 

Jeffers          vs. 

Jeffers, 

107 

N.  Y.         651 

But  whatever  definition  may  be  adopted  it  is  ap- 
parent that  the  term  ' '  natural  stream, ' '  as  used  in  the 
Colorado  Constitution,  refers  more  particularly  to  the 
chara(5ler  and  source  of  supply  than  to  the  form  of  the 
stream.   The  principal  source  and  origin  is  the  melting 


482  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

of  snows  on  the  mountain  ranges.  These  waters 
assume  different  forms,  sometimes  as  springs,  rivulets, 
ponds  and  lakes,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the 
ground  through  or  over  which  they  pass.  Sometimes 
these  waters  percolate  through  the  ground  and  pass 
unseen  for  miles  and  then  appear  as  springs.  These 
are  as  a  rule  feeders  of  the  natural  streams  and  in  con- 
templation of  law  are  a  part  of  them,  and  to  divert  the 
waters  from  a  spring  or  lake  which  is  the  source  of 
supply  of  a  natural  stream  could  scarcely  be  distin- 
guished from  the  appropriation  of  water  from  the 
stream  itself.  How  far  the  owner  of  lands  upon  which 
springs  arise  may  be  permitted  to  use  the  water,  allow- 
ing it  to  flow  on  after  use,  would  no  doubt  depend 
upon  the  character  and  amount  of  the  land,  and  the 
nature  of  the  spring  or  springs.  We  are  now  referring 
to  what  may  be  termed  natural  as  distinguished  from 
artificial  springs,  produced  by  waste  or  seepage  water, 
escaping  from  reservoirs,  ditches  or  canals,  or  the  sur- 
plus produced  by  irrigation.  The  right  to  these  waters 
is  defined  by  statute.  By  an  adl  of  the  Colorado 
I^egislature  of  1889,  A(5l  LXXXIX,  p.  215,  a  prior 
right  to  the  use  of  seepage  or  spring  waters  is  given  to 
the  person  upon  whose  lands  the  same  first  rises,  but 
the  term  spring  waters  as  used  in  the  a(5l  doubtless 
refers  to  artificial  springs,  produced  by  seepage  or 
waste  water.  If,  however,  it  should  be  held  to "  apply 
to  natural  springs,  it  might  be  of  doubtful  constitution- 
ality. Anything  which  tends  to  diminish  the  source 
of  supply  water  in  a  natural  stream  to  the  detriment  of 
prior  appropriators  is  prohibited,  hence  the  digging  of 
wells  close  to  a  stream,  so  that  the  water  from  the 


THE   COMMON   LAW   OF   IRRIGATION.  483 

stream  percolates  into  the  same,  is  held  to  be  but  indi- 
rec5lly  appropriating  water  from  the  stream. 

McClellan  vs.  Hurdle,  33  Pac.  Rep.  Col.  App. 

And  so  if  a  source  or  supply  of  a  natural  stream 
were  a  lake,  to  take  water  from  the  lake  would  be  an 
infringement  of  the  rights  of  prior  appropriators  from 
the  stream.  Any  body  of  water  in  whatever  form, 
originating  from  natural  causes,  and  supplying  and 
having  an  outlet  through  a  stream  with  well-defined 
channel,  is  a  part  of  a  "natural  stream,"  and  the 
waters  are  subjedl  to  appropriation  in  the  same  manner. 

Carrier's  Diversion. — Canals  or  common  carriers 
are  permitted  to  divert  water  from  streams,  to  be  appro- 
priated by  their  patrons,  and  many  thousand  of  acres 
of  valuable  lands  are  irrigated  and  made  productive  by 
this  means,  where  otherwise  it  would  be  impracticable. 
In  such  case  the  right  of  use  is  in  the  consumer.  The 
canal  company  is  in  one  sense  a  quasi  public  servant, 
and  is  entitled  to  reasonable  compensation  for  the  car- 
riage. When  a  canal  is  commenced  and  completed 
within  ' '  reasonable  time, ' '  the  consumers  who  there- 
after, within  "  a  reasonable  time,"  appropriate  waters 
therefrom  to  beneficial  use,  have  priorities  dating  from 
the  carrier's  diversion. 

Ditch  Rights. — The  right  of  way  for  ditches  is 
easily  and  oftentimes  confused  with  water  rights — the 
former  is  no  more  or  less  than  a  right  of  way  or  ease- 
ment through  lands,  but  in  some  cases  as  evidence  of 
appropriation,  furnish  the  measure  of  the  water  right. 
The  Colorado  Statutes  provide  for  a  record  of  ditch 
statements  and  the  Legislatures  have  gone  so  far  as  to 


484  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

declare  that  the  construction  of  a  ditch  and  record  of 
statement  shall  give  priority  of  right  to  water,  but  all 
such  statutes  are  in  that  respedl  unconstitutional. 

Adjudication  of  Priorities.— The  Colorado  Stat- 
utes provide  a  method  for  the  adjudication  of  priorities 
as  between  claimants  of  water  from  the  same  stream  ; 
and  many  attempts  have  been  made  by  the  courts  to 
carry  out  these  law^s,  but  with  little  success  and  un- 
satisfadlory  results,  mainly  from  the  fa(5l  that  the  law 
is  imperfedl,  vague,  and  indefinite,  and  the  courts  in 
attempting  to  follow  its  provisions  have  lost  sight  of 
constitutional  restric5lions.  In  many  instances  the  con- 
strudtion  and  record  of  a  ditch  right  was  treated  as 
equivalent  to  the  appropriation  of  water  to  the  extent 
of  the  capacity  of  the  ditch,  and  in  some  instances 
parties  were  decreed  priorities,  to  take  effedl  upon 
future  contingency,  when  an  actual  appropriation  to 
beneficial  use  in  each  case  should  have  been  the  basis 
of  the  decree. 

Rights  Existing  in  Parole. — Under  the  Colo- 
rado system,  water  rights  exist  almost  exclusively  in 
parole,  and  hence  there  is  the  greatest  latitude  for  dis- 
putes and  litigation.  Since  these  rights  have  been  de- 
clared to  be  in  the  nature  of  **  realty,"  a  code  of  laws 
should  be  enadled  requiring  a  complete  public  record 
to  be  kept  of  each  water  right. 


GLOSSARY  OF  IRRIGATION  TERMS 


Acequia — Spanish  name  for  an  irrigating  canal. 

Acre  Foot — Amount  of  water  covering  one  acre,  one  foot  in 
depth. 

Adit — A  tunnel  for  carrying  water. 

Anchor — Piles  driven  in  a  channel,  upon  which  to  rest  a  super- 
structure. 

Aqueduct — A  water  conduit  for  long  distances. 

Artesian — Self-flowing  deep  wells. 

Asbestine — A  system  of  underground  piping  used  in  subirri- 
gation. 

Azarbes— Spanish  term  for  channel. 

Backsetting — Replowing  a  furrow  back  into  its  original  posi- 
tion ;  damming  streams  for  irrigation  by  percolation. 

Basins — Water  spaces  made  around  trees  for  irrigation. 

Bench  Flume — A  wooden  conduit  laid  upon  benches  or  sills. 

Bench  M2u*k — A  monument  from  which  differences  of  level  are 
measured. 

Bents — Sections  of  framework  or  trellises  used  in  flume  work. 

Berme — The  inner  slope  of  embankments,  so  graded  as  to  pre- 
vent earth  from  sliding. 

Beton — Concrete  of  lime,  sand,  and  hydraulic  cement. 

Billabongl — Australian  term  for  a  lake  or  lagoon. 

Border — A  system  of  ridges  thrown  up  to  hold  water  within 
prescribed  limits. 

Breakwater — A  structure  to  protect  works  from  the  force  of 
waves. 

Bulkhead — The  head  flume  of  a  ditch  or  canal  ;  the  gateway  at 
the  headworks. 

Canal — A  large  irrigating  ditch  ;   the  main  watercourse. 

Canvas  Dam — A  coarse  fabric  apron  used  as  a  check  in  laterals. 

485 


486  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Cfttchment— Extent  of  country  that  may  be  utilized  in  drawing 

water  to  a  certain  point,  as   a  reservoir;  also  catchment 

area. 
Check — An  impediment  placed  in  a  lateral  to  divert  water  out 

upon  the  land. 
Conduit — An  aqueduct  for  passing  water;  a  tube  or  pipe. 
Contour — The  high  level  line  describing  the  course  of  a  canal. 
Crown  Arch — An   arched    plate  serving   as   a  keystone   in   a 

masonry  curved  dam. 
Cylinder — An  enlarged  mechanism  for  a  piston  at  the  bottom 

of  a  pump  in  a  well. 
Dam — A  barrier  to  confine  the  flow  of  a  stream  to  raise  its 

level;  an  embankment  of  a  reservoir. 
Detritus — Disintegrated   material   of    any   kind   flowing   in   a 

ditch;  silt  or  alluvial  deposit. 
Dike — An  embankment  for  holding  water. 
Ditch — An  artificial  watercourse,  one  somewhat  smaller  than 

a  canal. 
Ditching  Machine — An  implement  for  excavating  canals,  etc. 
Diversion  Dam — A  structure  in  a  natural  stream  for  diverting 

the  water  into  a  canal. 
Division   Box — A    contrivance    for    dividing   or    apportioning 

water  to  consumers. 
Drop  Box — An  arrangement  in  a  canal  for  lowering  or  reducing 

the  grade. 
Duty  of  Water— Service  required  of  water  in  supplying  land; 

the  tax  to  which  water  is  put  in  irrigating. 
Evaporation — The  loss  of  water  by  vaporizing. 
Tellah — An  Egyptian  laborer,  cultivator  or  irrigator. 
niament — The  center  course  of  a  current  in  a  stream. 
Fill-Bank — Material  used  in  constructing  embankments. 
nitration — Act  of  filtering,  as  water  through  soil. 
riights — A  continuous  series  of  lifting  buckets  or  plates  in  a 

water  elevator. 
Float — An   object   thrown    into   a    stream  to   calculate  water 

velocity;  a  water-wheel  paddle. 
Flume — A  structure  or  box  for  conducting  water  across  de- 
pressions or  uneven  places. 


GLOSSARY  OF  IRRIGATION  TERMS.  487 

Fly-Off — Evaporation  of  water  as  compared  with  run-off 
waters. 

Fore  Bay — That  part  of  a  canal  where  the  water  enters  the 
headgate. 

Fountainhead — Original  source;  a  spring  from  which  water 
flows. 

Grade — The  degree  of  inclination  in  a  canal. 

Grade  Level — An  instrument  for  determining  the  slope  of  a 
watercourse. 

Gradient — Rate  of  variation  in  the  grade  of  a  ditch. 

Head — The  measure  of  stored  up  or  gathered  force  ready  to 
be  used  in  irrigating;  the  hight  of  a  body  of  water  in 
covering  land,  as  by  flooding. 

Head  Bay— See  Fore  Bay. 

Head  Ditch — A  lateral  running  along  the  highest  level  of  land 
to  be  irrigated. 

Headgate — The  up-stream  gate  of  a  canal;  a  water  or  flood- 
gate. 

Hydraulic  Engineer — One  skilled  in  hydraulics  and  the  con- 
struction of  waterways. 

Hydraulic  Ram — An  automatic  device  for  raising  water  by  its 
own  power. 

Hydraulics — The  science  of  liquids,  especially  of  water  in 
motion. 

Hydrometric  Sluice — A  certain  kind  of  measuring  box. 

Intake — The  point  in  a  stream  where  a  canal  is  taken  out. 

Inundation — Overflowing  or  covering  land  with  water. 

Irrigant— An  irrigating  ditch. 

Irrigation — The  process  of  watering  agricultural  lands  by  arti- 
ficial means. 

Irrigator — A  cart  for  watering  crops;  one  who  irrigates. 

Lateral— A  side  ditch;  the  small  service  line  leading  from  a 
supply  ditch  or  canal. 

Levee — A  border  or  embankment. 

Loess — A  deposit  of  fine  clay  loam  or  very  fine  sand;  the  sedi- 
ment found  in  canals. 

Measuring  Box — A  device  set  in  ditches  for  apportioning 
water  to  consumers. 


488  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Miner's  Inch — A  unit  of  water  measurement. 

Module — A  French  device  for  measuring  water. 

Mudsill — The  structure  upon  which  rests  the  floor  of  a  head- 
gate. 

Nilometer — A  gauge  for  measuring  and  recording  the  rise  and 
fall  of  streams. 

Overfall — The  apron  of  a  weir  or  dam. 

Penstock — A  pipe  for  supplying  water  ;  a  sluice  or  conduit  for 
controlling  the  discharge  of  water. 

Percolation — Filtration  of  water  through  the  soil. 

Phreatic— Underground,  as    the    sources   of   wells  ;   phreatic 
waters. 

Pipe-Line — A  system  of  pipe  or  conduit  for  conveying  water. 

Points — Perforated  pipes  driven  into  the  earth  to  secure  water 
for  pumps. 

Porosity — Porous  condition  or  possessing  pores. 

Puddle — To  line,  as  canal   banks,  with  clay  to  render  water- 
tight ;  preparing  plants  for  transplanting. 

Reduction  Box — A  device  for  decreasing  the  flow  of  a  canal. 

Reservoir — A  basin   for  collecting  and  impounding  water  ;   a 
storage  lake  or  pond. 

Rill — A  small  stream  or  delicate  furrow. 

Riparieui — Pertaining  to  the  banks  of  a  river. 

Riprap — Broken  stone   arranged  in   beds   for  protecting   em- 
bankments. 

Run-Off — Those  waters  which  escape  by  natural  courses  on  the  /  ^  \i 
earth's  surface  ;  those  waters  which  do  not  "  fly-oflf.ll,.--'^       ^  ^ 

Sakiyeh — A  rude  water-wheel  used  in  Egypt. 

Sand  Gate — An  appliance  for  diverting  sand  from  a  canal. 

Second  Foot — A  unit  of  water  measure  ;  the  discharge  of  one 
cubic  foot  a  second. 

Seepage — Oozing  or  percolation  of  water  in  soil  ;  also  spelled 
seapage  and  sipage. 

Sewage — The  discharge  from  sewers  ;  waste  water. 

Shadoof — An  Oriental  device  similar  to  a  well-sweep. 

Sheet-Piling — Thick    planking   driven    as    piles  ;   the  sides  of 
coffer-dams. 

Silt — Detritus  or  floating  matter  in  a  ditch  ;  sediment. 


GLOSSARY  OF   IRRIGATION  TERMS.  489 

Siphon — A  bent  pipe  or  tube,  or  even  a  box,  for  drawing  water 

by  atmospheric  pressure;  also  syphon. 
Slope — The  grade  of  a  ditch. 
Sluice — An  artificial  channel  for  carrying  water,  with  gates  or 

valves. 
Spillway — A  waste  weir  or  overflow. 
Standpipe — An  elevated  tap  for  draining  water  from  a  main  ; 

a  tower-like  pipe  at  a  reservoir  into  which  water  is  pumped 

to  give  it  a  head. 
Storm  Water — That  which  falls  in  catchments  during  freshets. 
Strut — A  compression  brace  in  a  framework,  as  a  truss. 
Subbing — Water  percolating   near  the  surface  and  utilized  in 

subirrigation. 
Subirri^ation — Watering  land  through  pipes  or  channels  below 

the  surface. 
Subsidiary  Canals — Those  that  are  secondary. 
Subsoilini^ — To  break  up  ;  to  loosen  the  subsoil. 
Sump — A  shallow  well  or  cistern. 
Tail-Race — A  wasteway  from  a  canal. 
Tamp — To  pack  with  earth  or  other  materials. 
Target — An  instrument  used  as  a  flag  in  directing  surveyors. 
Terreplein — The  level  fill  or  surface  of  earth  made  to  connect 

with  flumes,  etc. 
Tumbeam — A  sort  of  treadmill  device  used  in  Oriental  lands 

for  raising  water. 
Tympanum — A  large  drum-wheel  for  raising  water  from  a  run- 
ning stream. 
Underflow — Currents  of  water  below  the  earth's  surface. 
Warping — A  method   of  retaining  water  by  means  of  banks  in 

overflows,  as  of  tides  along  the  ocean  shore. 
Waste  Gate — An  outlet  for  discharging  water  from  a  canal  or 

storage  pond. 
Water  Register — An    instrument    for    measuring   the  flow   of 

streams. 
Water  Right — A  privilege  ;  the  right  to  the  possession  and  use 

of  water  for  irrigating. 
Water  Witchery — Art  of  discovering  the  underground  presence 

of  water  by  aid  of  divining  rods. 


490  IRRIGATION   FARMING. 

Weir — A  sort  of  dam  placed  in  a  stream  for  diverting  or  meas 
uring  water. 

Well — A  source  of  water-supply;  a  hollow  tower  in  a  reser- 
voir 

Wind  Rustler— A   crude  apparatus  serving  the  purpose  of  a 
windmill. 

Wind  Dam — A  jetty  or  barrier  built  into  a  stream  to  deflect 
the  current. 

Zanjero — Spanish  term  for  a  ditch-walker  or  overseer. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Advantages  of  Irrigation 13 

Fertilizing  effects 15 

Scientific  principles 16 

Value  of  irrigated  lands —    20 

Alfalfa 324 

Disease  of 346 

Dodder 847 

Feeding  value 345 

Fertilizing  elements 342 

Harvesting 336 

History  of 324 

Hoove  or  bloat 349 

Irrigating 334 

Nurse  crops 331 

Preparing  land 328 

Rotation 343 

Soils  for 327 

Seed  crop 340 

Seeding 329 

Stacking 337 

Straw  sandwich 350 

Turkestan  variety 326 

Ventilating  stacks 340 

Alkali— Chemical  antidotes...     44 

Composition  of 36 

Crops  to  neutralize 44 

Effect  on  plants 38 

Formation  of  salts 37 

Remedies  for 40 

Waters  carrying 39 

Asbestine  Sytem 116 

Canal  Construction— Cement- 
ing     80 

Curves  and  friction 68 

Cost  of 62-65 

Ditching  methods 61 

Drop-head 72 

Dropping  the  grade 67 

Evaporation  and  seepage. . .    79 
Form  and  capacity 65 


PAOE 

Canal  Construction— Con^d. 

Grades  and  slopes 66 

Headgates 70 

Laterals 81 

Laying  out  ditches 58 

Locating  by  surveys 59 

Ratio  of  slopes 68 

Sand  gates 74 

Surveying  outfit 58 

Tail  races 75 

Waste  gates 75 

Cisterns,  Capacity  of 165 

Dams 96 

Drouth,  Loss  by 458 

Duty    and    Measurement    of 

Water 140 

Capacity  of  canals 148 

Capacity  of  cisterns 165 

Capacity  of  windmills 164 

Cubic  foot 141 

Current  meters 156 

Divisors 149 

Evaporation 146 

Floats 156 

Gauging  rivers 155-165 

Hour  system 146 

Irrigation  head 143 

Miner's  inch 142,  149 

Modules  or  boxes 150 

Stokes  measuring  gate 159 

Under  humid  conditions 466 

Units  of  calculation 141 

Water  registers 158 

Weirs 152,  162 

Electricity— Cost  of  a  plant. . .  454 
Generating  by  turbines.  .448-450 

Joint  use 454 

Induction  motors 451 

Installing  a  plant 451 

Operating  pumps 451 

491 


492 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


PAQK 

Evaporation 70,  146 

In  winter 464 

Flumes 123 

Arc  stave 134 

Bracing 136 

Ck>n8tniction  of 124 

Crossing  a  river 182 

Curves  and  grades 124 

Iron  structures 136 

Trestlework 130 

Siphons 138 

Frost,  Preventing 476 

Garden  Irrigation 250 

Asparagus 251 

Beans 262 

Beets 256 

Cabbage 266 

Cantaloupes 268 

Carrots 257 

Cauliflower 267 

Celery 253 

Cucumbers 265 

Horseradish 257 

Lettuce 273 

Onions 258 

Parsley 273 

Parsnips 257 

Peanuts 273 

Peas 268 

Pieplant 273 

Pumpkins 270 

Radishes 256 

Rhubarb 274 

Roses 275 

Salsify 257 

Spinach 273 

Sweet  Com 271 

Tomatoes 263 

Turnips 257 

Watermelons 267 

Gasoline  Engines 383 

Glossary  of  Terms. 485 

Hardpan 285 

Headgates 70 

History  of  Irrigation 1 

Assyrian  works 6 


PAGE 

History  of  Irrigation— Cont'd. 

Early  work  of  Menes 2 

^irst  artesian  wells 3 

Great  imperial  well  of  China.  4 
Hanging  gardens  of  Babylon  6 
Hidden  springs  of  Solomon.  7 
Invention  of  the  nilometer.  2 
Irrigation  among  the  Greeks  7 
Mormon  operations  in  Utah  11 
Primeval    operations    in 

America 10 

Roman  aqueducts 9 

Shadoof  or  well-sweep 8 

Spanish  methods 9 

Sunken  island  of  Atlantis. ..      1 

Tympanum  wheel 8 

Humid  Irrigation 455 

Eastern  duty  of  water 460 

Irrigating  terraces 450 

Losses  by  drouth 458 

Sources  of  supply 459 

Hydraulic  Embankment 163 

Rams 376 

Induction  Motors 457 

Iron  Pipes Ill 

Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates  455 

Laterals 81 

Ikw  of  Irrigation 478 

Acquiring  a  right 479 

Adjudication  of  priorities. . .  484 

Beneficial  use 477 

Carrier's  diversion 483 

Changing    point    of    diver- 
sion    475 

Common  law  rules 474 

Defining  channels 481 

Intention  of  abandonment. .  476 

Locus  of  application 476 

Proof  of  non-user 476 

Rights  as  realty 475 

Rights  in  parole 484 

Rights  of  appropriation 474 

Right  of  way 483 

Manures 34 

Orchard  Irrigation 277 

Apples 288 


INDEX. 


493 


PAQB 

Orchard  Irrigation— Cont'd. 

Apricots 296 

Cherries 296 

Condition  in  winter 467 

Cultivation 283 

Lemons  and  limes 300 

Nuts 360 

Oranges 397 

Peaches 293 

Pears 290 

Planting 280 

Plums 291 

Preventing  frost 470 

Prunes 292 

Pruning 292 

Quinces 296 

Pipes  for  Irrigation  Purposes.  109 

Asbestine  system 116 

Capacity 164 

Iron Ill 

.Liaminated 113 

Pressure  of 110 

Riveted  pipes 112 

Spiral 112 

Steel 114 

Vitrified 114 

Plowsole 286 

Pumps 369 

Capacity  of 389 

Centrifugals 374 

Compressed  air 385 

Cost  of  raising  water 388 

Current  wheels 383 

For  windmills 370 

Gasoline  engines 383 

Hurdy-gurdy 881 

Hydraulic  rams 376 

Irrigation  cylinders 376 

Plunger  pumps 369 

Propellers 375 

Pumping  from  quicksand. . .  391 

Repairs  on 387 

Rotary 371 

Rotary  engines 384 

Turbine 381 

Vacuums 37a 


PAGE 

Fumps— Continued. 

Water  motors 380 

Quicksand,  Pumping  from 391 

Reservoirs 84 

Bear  valley  works 92 

Capacity  of 363 

Cementing lOO 

Construction  of 89 

Cost  and  capacity 94 

Damming  a  stream 96 

For  windmills 354 

Gates  and  spillways 101 

Hydraulic  embankment 103 

Laying  out 88 

Location  of 86 

Masonry  work 92 

Storage  ponds 98 

Sweetwater  dam 94 

Trouble  from  silt 105 

Rights  of  Appropriation 480 

Sand  Gates 74 

Saturation  in  "Winter 470 

Seepage 79 

Open  ditches 443 

The  Steam  Irishman 445 

TiUng 447 

Silt   32 

In  reservoirs 52,  105 

Siphons 1.38 

Soils 22 

Acids  in 26 

Adobe 24 

Absorptive  qualities 25 

Capillary  action 31 

Classification  of 22 

Clay  soils 23 

Color  and  texture 27 

For  alfalfa 327 

Gravity 29 

Gumbo  and  loam 24 

Humus 25 

Mechanical  arrangement...    28 

Sand  and  silica 25 

Temperature 29 

Solids  in  Alkali 817 

Storage  Ponds 98 


494 


IRRIGATION   FARMING. 


PAGE 

Subirrigatlon , 821 

Subsoil  Plow 287 

Tail  Races 75 

Vineyards  and  Small  Fruits..  803 

Best  soils 303 

Blackberries 312 

Capers 316 

Cranberries 314 

Cultivation 805 

Currants 813 

Foreign  grapes 309 

Gooseberries 312 

Irrigation 307 

Vineyard 301 

Raspberries 810 

Strawberries 317 

Winter  protection 409 

Vitrified  Pipe 114 

Waste  Gates 75 

Water-supply 47 

Beneficial  use  of 477 

Catchment  area 611 

Evaporation  and  run-off....    48 

Newsom  system 54 

Surface  supply 50 

Tunneling,,,..,,. 53 


PAGE 

Water-supply— Con^mtted. 
Underflow,  phreatic  and  ar- 
tesian     68 

Water  witchery 65 

Weirs 152-162 

Windmills 852 

Capacity  of 868 

Care  of 861 

Erecting  towers 858 

For  pumping 862 

Home-made  kinds 866 

Jumbos 364 

Merry-go-round 367 

Repairs 887 

Selecting 856 

Steel  towers 860 

Various  makes 858 

Wind-power 361 

Wind  rustlers 364 

Winter  Irrigation  —  Depth  of 

saturation 469 

Evaporation  in  winter 464 

Orchards  in  winter 467 

Preventing  frosts 470 

Valuable  experiment 465 

Vineyard  protection 469 


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MAR  2  8 196fi  3  3 

JOKA   166  28  S80 


3  1994 
CAUF.,  BERK 


30m-6.'14 


YB  53328 


4r*^..V/-* 


[01941 


^5   ::^ 


